Colloidal aspects of texture perception.

Recently, considerable attention has been given to the understanding of texture attributes that cannot directly be related to physical properties of food, such as creamy, crumbly and watery. The perception of these attributes is strongly related to the way the food is processed during food intake, mastication, swallowing of it and during the cleaning of the mouth after swallowing. Moreover, their perception is modulated by the interaction with other basic attributes, such as taste and aroma attributes (e.g. sourness and vanilla). To be able to link the composition and structure of food products to more complicated texture attributes, their initial physical/colloid chemical properties and the oral processing of these products must be well understood. Understanding of the processes in the mouth at colloidal length scales turned out to be essential to grasp the interplay between perception, oral physiology and food properties. In view of the huge differences in physical chemical properties between food products, it is practical to make a distinction between solid, semi-solid, and liquid food products. The latter ones are often liquid dispersions of emulsion droplets or particles in general. For liquid food products for instance flow behaviour and colloidal stability of dispersed particles play a main role in determining their textural properties. For most solid products stiffness and fracture behaviour in relation to water content are essential while for semi-solids a much larger range of mechanical properties will play a role. Examples of colloidal aspects of texture perception will be discussed for these three categories of products based on selected sensory attributes and/or relevant colloidal processes. For solid products some main factors determining crispness will be discussed. For crispiness of dry cellular solid products these are water content and the architecture of the product at mesoscopic length scales (20-1000 microm). In addition the distribution of water at mesoscopic length scales was found to be important. For semi-solid foods, sensory characteristics as spreadability, watery and crumbliness are primarily determined by food properties at mesoscopic length scales. Crumbliness is directly related to the formation of free running cracks that occur during eating of the product. Exudation of the continuous liquid phase of gels during compression gives rise to watery/juicy sensory attributes. For liquid food products, colloidal interactions of emulsion droplets, particles, proteins, and polysaccharides with saliva and oral surfaces were found to affect texture characteristics as creaminess, fattiness, roughness and astringency.

Reasons of general practitioners for not prescribing lipid-lowering medication to patients with diabetes: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Lipid-lowering medication remains underused, even in high-risk populations. The objective of this study was to determine factors underlying general practitioners' decisions not to prescribe such drugs to patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS: A qualitative study with semi-structured interviews using real cases was conducted to explore reasons for not prescribing lipid-lowering medication after a guideline was distributed that recommended the use of statins in most patients with type 2 diabetes. Seven interviews were conducted with general practitioners (GPs) in The Netherlands, and analysed using an analytic inductive approach. RESULTS: Reasons for not-prescribing could be divided into patient and physician-attributed factors. According to the GPs, some patients do not follow-up on agreed medication and others object to taking lipid-lowering medication, partly for legitimate reasons such as expected or perceived side effects. Furthermore, the GPs themselves perceived reservations for prescribing lipid-lowering medication in patients with short life expectancy, expected compliance problems or near goal lipid levels. GPs sometimes postponed the start of treatment because of other priorities. Finally, barriers were seen in the GPs' practice organisation, and at the primary-secondary care interface. CONCLUSION: Some of the barriers mentioned by GPs seem to be valid reasons, showing that guideline non-adherence can be quite rational. On the other hand, treatment quality could improve by addressing issues, such as lack of knowledge or motivation of both the patient and the GP. More structured management in general practice may also lead to better treatment.

Water uptake mechanism in crispy bread crust.

Crispness is an important quality characteristic of dry solid food products such as crispy rolls. Its retention is directly related to the kinetics of water uptake by the crust. In this study, a method for the evaluation of the water sorption kinetics in bread crust is proposed. Two different sorption experiments were used: an oscillatory sorption test and a sorption test in which the air relative humidity (RH) was increased stepwise. These two experiments had different time scales, which made it possible to get a better understanding of the mechanisms involved. Results show that the adsorption and desorption dynamics of the oscillatory sorption test could be described by a single exponential in time. The water uptake rate ( k) was one of the fitting parameters. A maximum in the water uptake rate was found for a RH value between 50 and 70%. The rate parameters of the experiment where RH was increased stepwise were around a factor 10 lower than those derived from oscillatory sorption experiments. This is an important factor when designing experiments for the determination of water uptake rates. In addition, also a parameter describing the time dependence of the rate parameters of the oscillatory sorption experiment was calculated (C), again by fitting a single exponential to the rate parameters. C was in the same range as the rate parameter of the isotherm experiment. This indicates that different (relaxation) processes are acting at the same time in the bread crust during water uptake.

Scaling of sound emission energy and fracture behavior of cellular solid foods.

A detailed study was performed of the fracture behavior of toasted rusk rolls, a cellular solid food, at different water activities and morphologies. We find that the energies of the emitted sound pulses follow Gutenberg-Richter power laws with characteristic exponents b ~ 1.5 . The scaling exponents varied only within a range of 0.2 when the method of fracture, humidity, or morphology was changed. However, differences in b were observed, indicating nonuniversal behavior, that seems to be related to morphology and water activity. Also, power law scaling behavior was observed for the waiting time distributions with an exponent a ~ 1.9.

Structure of mixed beta-lactoglobulin/pectin adsorbed layers at air/water interfaces; a spectroscopy study.

Based on earlier reported surface rheological behaviour two factors appeared to be important for the functional behaviour of mixed protein/polysaccharide adsorbed layers at air/water interfaces: (1) protein/polysaccharide mixing ratio and (2) formation history of the layers. In this study complexes of beta-lactoglobulin (positively charged at pH 4.5) and low methoxyl pectin (negatively charged) were formed at two mixing ratios, resulting in negatively charged and nearly neutral complexes. Neutron reflection showed that adsorption of negative complexes leads to more diffuse layers at the air/water interface than adsorption of neutral complexes. Besides (simultaneous) adsorption of protein/polysaccharide complexes, a mixed layer can also be formed by adsorption of (protein/)polysaccharide (complexes) to a pre-formed protein layer (sequential adsorption). Despite similar bulk concentrations, adsorbed layer density profiles of simultaneously and sequentially formed layers were persistently different, as illustrated by neutron reflection analysis. Time resolved fluorescence anisotropy showed that the mobility of protein molecules at an air/water interface is hampered by the presence of pectin. This hampered mobility of protein through a complex layer could account for differences observed in density profiles of simultaneously and sequentially formed layers. These insights substantiated the previously proposed organisations of the different adsorbed layers based on surface rheological data.

Oscillatory water sorption test for determining water uptake behavior in bread crust.

In this work, water sorption kinetics of bread crust are described using an oscillatory sorption test in combination with a Langmuir type equation. Both kinetic and thermodynamic information could be obtained at the same time. An advantage of applying a Langmuir type equation for a quantitative description of the water uptake kinetics is that no prior knowledge is necessary with respect to shape and surface area of the sample. It was shown that adsorption and desorption of water to the bread crust particle surface is much faster than the experimental time used (15 min at minimum). From this, we may conclude that diffusion of water into the solid matrix is the rate-limiting step in the water sorption process. The method also allows one to calculate a Gibbs free energy. The method is suitable for use up to relative humidities of 60%.

Modulating surface rheology by electrostatic protein/polysaccharide interactions.

There is a large interest in mixed protein/polysaccharide layers at air-water and oil-water interfaces because of their ability to stabilize foams and emulsions. Mixed protein/polysaccharide adsorbed layers at air-water interfaces can be prepared either by adsorption of soluble protein/polysaccharide complexes or by sequential adsorption of complexes or polysaccharides to a previously formed protein layer. Even though the final protein and polysaccharide bulk concentrations are the same, the behavior of the adsorbed layers can be very different, depending on the method of preparation. The surface shear modulus of a sequentially formed beta-lactoglobulin/pectin layer can be up to a factor of 6 higher than that of a layer made by simultaneous adsorption. Furthermore, the surface dilatational modulus and surface shear modulus strongly (up to factors of 2 and 7, respectively) depend on the bulk -lactoglobulin/pectin mixing ratio. On the basis of the surface rheological behavior, a mechanistic understanding of how the structure of the adsorbed layers depends on the protein/polysaccharide interaction in bulk solution, mixing ratio, ionic strength, and order of adsorption to the interface (simultaneous or sequential) is derived. Insight into the effect of protein/polysaccharide interactions on the properties of adsorbed layers provides a solid basis to modulate surface rheological behavior.

Correlation between mechanical behavior of protein films at the air/water interface and intrinsic stability of protein molecules.

The relation between mechanical film properties of various adsorbed protein layers at the air/water interface and intrinsic stability of the corresponding proteins is discussed. Mechanical film properties were determined by surface deformation in shear and dilation. In shear, fracture stress, sigma(f), and fracture strain, gamma(f), were determined, as well as the relaxation behavior after macroscopic fracture. The dilatational measurements were performed in a Langmuir trough equipped with an infra-red reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) accessory. During compression and relaxation of the surface, the surface pressure, Pi, and adsorbed amount, Gamma (determined from the IRRAS spectra), were determined simultaneously. In addition, IRRAS spectra revealed information on conformational changes in terms of secondary structure. Possible correlations between macroscopic film properties and intrinsic stability of the proteins were determined and discussed in terms of molecular dimensions of single proteins and interfacial protein films. Molecular properties involved the area per protein molecule at Pi approximately 0 mN/m (A(0)), A(0)/M (M = molecular weight) and the maximum slope of the Pi-Gamma curves (dPi/dGamma). The differences observed in mechanical properties and relaxation behavior indicate that the behavior of a protein film subjected to large deformation may vary widely from predominantly viscous (yielding) to more elastic (fracture). This transition is also observed in gradual changes in A(0)/M. It appeared that in general protein layers with high A(0)/M have a high gamma(f) and behave more fluidlike, whereas solidlike behavior is characterized by low A(0)/M and low gamma(f). Additionally, proteins with a low A(0)/M value have a low adaptability in changing their conformation upon adsorption at the air/water interface. Both results support the conclusion that the hardness (internal cohesion) of protein molecules determines predominantly the mechanical behavior of adsorbed protein layers.

Scaling behavior of delayed demixing, rheology, and microstructure of emulsions flocculated by depletion and bridging.

This paper describes an experimental comparison of microstructure, rheology, and demixing of bridging- and depletion-flocculated oil-in-water emulsions. Confocal scanning laser microscopy imaging showed that bridging-flocculated emulsions were heterogeneous over larger length scales than depletion-flocculated emulsions. As a consequence, G' as determined from diffusing wave spectroscopy (DWS) corresponded well with G' as measured macroscopically for the depletion-flocculated emulsions, but this correspondence was not found for the bridging-flocculated emulsions. The heterogeneity of bridging-flocculated emulsions was confirmed by DWS-echo measurements, indicating that their structure breaks up into large fragments upon oscillatory shear deformation larger than 1%. Depletion- and bridging-flocculated emulsions showed a different scaling of the storage modulus with the volume fraction of oil and a difference in percolation threshold volume fraction. These differences will be discussed on the basis of the two types of droplet-droplet interactions studied. Gravity-induced demixing occurred in both emulsions, but the demixing processes differed. After preparation of bridging-flocculated emulsions, serum immediately starts to separate, whereas depletion-flocculated systems at polysaccharide concentrations in the overlap regime usually showed a delay time before demixing. The delay time was found to scale with the network permeability, B; the viscosity, eta, of the aqueous phase; and the density difference between oil and water, Deltarho, as tdelay approximately B(-1)etaDeltarho(-1). The results are in line with the mechanism proposed by Starrs et al. (J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 2002, 14, 2485-2505), where erosion of the droplet network leads to widening of the channels within the droplet networks, facilitating drainage of liquid.

The role of interfacial rheological properties on Ostwald ripening in emulsions.

The coarsening of emulsion droplets by Ostwald ripening is studied by means of numerical simulations in which time-dependent (elastic) interfacial behaviour is taken into account. Theoretical calculations on the dissolution of a single emulsion droplet in an infinite medium at saturated conditions show that the dissolution process can be stopped only when the interfacial tension goes to zero. When interfacial stress relaxation is included, which prevents a continuous zero interfacial tension, no stabilisation of the dissolution process is observed and the droplet dissolves completely. In the case of an ensemble of droplets, numerical calculations on the coarsening of emulsion droplets with finite interfacial elasticity show that a stable situation occurs at finite interfacial tensions of the droplets. This applies for a closed system with the same assumptions as those made in the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner (LSW) theory. The coarsening behaviour strongly depends on the saturation of the dispersed phase in the continuous phase. If the system is in contact with atmosphere, saturation will finally go to unity and stabilisation will only occur for zero interfacial tension of the droplets. For an ensemble of droplets in a closed system, the calculations show that stress-relaxation of the interface causes the Ostwald-ripening process to continue, so no stable situation is reached. Stabilisation can only be accomplished by adding insoluble species to the dispersed phase, by using particles as stabilisers or by micro-encapsulation of the emulsion droplets by thick insoluble interfacial layers, which have a thickness that is in the order of the radius of the droplet.

Influence of pH and ionic strength on heat-induced formation and rheological properties of soy protein gels in relation to denaturation and their protein compositions.

The influence of pH and ionic strength on gel formation and gel properties of soy protein isolate (SPI) in relation to denaturation and protein aggregation/precipitation was studied. Denaturation proved to be a prerequisite for gel formation under all conditions of pH and ionic strength studied. Gels exhibited a low stiffness at pH >6 and a high stiffness at pH <6. This might be caused by variations in the association/dissociation behavior of the soy proteins on heating as a function of pH, as indicated by the different protein compositions of the dissolved protein after heating. At pH 3-5 all protein seems to participate in the network, whereas at pH >5 less protein and especially fewer acidic polypeptides take part in the network, coinciding with less stiff gels. At pH 7.6, extensive rearrangements in the network structure took place during prolonged heating, whereas at pH 3.8 rearrangements did not occur.

Toward the recognition of structure-function relationships in galactomannans.

In this paper the determination of the physical/rheological characteristics is described for a series of commercial galactomannans of which the structural details have been reported previously. Both solubility of the galactomannans and rheological properties of galactomannan solutions and galactomannan/xanthan mixtures were determined. Using a statistical analysis approach an attempt was undertaken to recognize correlations between structural and rheological data. The best correlation found was between the abundance of galactose substituents at a regular distance (type of galactomannan) and the storage modulus (G') of mixed galactomannan/xanthan gels, underscoring the hypothesis that branching hinders the formation of a network with xanthan gum. Also, the G' for the group of locust bean gums correlated with the degree of blockiness, that is, the size and occurrence of nonsubstituted regions on the mannose backbone. In addition, galactomannans displayed an apparent decrease in gelling ability with increasing average molecular weight. That G' also relates to the type of galactomannan can therefore partly be attributed to differences in average molecular weight for the various galactomannan types. However, within the series of locust bean gums tested, also an increase of G' with molecular weight was observed. This can be explained by the decreasing number of loose ends of the polymers and the concomitant increasing efficiency in network participation with increasing molecular weight.

Heat-induced gel formation by soy proteins at neutral pH.

Heat-induced gel formation by soy protein isolate at pH 7 is discussed. Different heating and cooling rates, heating times, and heating temperatures were used to elucidate the various processes that occur and to study the relative role of covalent and noncovalent protein interactions therein. Gel formation was followed by dynamic rheological measurements. Heat denaturation was a prerequisite for gel formation. The gelation temperature (84 degrees C) was just above the onset denaturation temperature of glycinin. The stiffness of the gels, measured as the elastic modulus, G', increased with the proportion of denatured protein. An increase in G' was also observed during prolonged heating at 90 degrees C. This increase is explained by the occurrence of rearrangements in the network structure and probably also by further incorporation of protein in the network. The increase in G' upon cooling was thermoreversible indicating that disulfide bond formation and rearrangements do not occur upon cooling.

Network forming properties of various proteins adsorbed at the air/water interface in relation to foam stability.

A series of proteins was studied with respect to their ability to form a network at the air/water interface and their suitability as foaming agents and foam stabilizers. Proteins were chosen with a range of structures from flexible to rigid/globular: beta-casein, beta-lactoglobulin, ovalbumin, and (soy) glycinin. Experiments were performed at neutral pH except for glycinin, which was studied at both pH 3 and pH 6.7. The adsorption process was followed with an automated drop tensiometer (ADT). Network forming properties were assessed in terms of surface dilational modulus (determined with the ADT), the critical falling film length (L(still)) and flow rate (Q(still)) below which a stagnant film exists (as measured with the overflowing cylinder technique), and the fracture stress and fracture strain measured in surface shear. It was found that glycinin (pH 3) can form an interfacial gel in a very short time, whereas beta-casein has very poor network-forming properties. Hardly any foam could be produced at the chosen conditions with glycinin (pH 6.7) and with ovalbumin, whereas beta-casein, beta-lactoglobulin, and glycinin (pH 3) were good foaming agents. It seems that adsorption and unfolding rate are most important for foam formation. Once the foam is formed, a rigid network might favor stabilizing the foam.

Effect of Bulk and Interfacial Rheological Properties on Bubble Dissolution.

This paper describes theoretical calculations of the combined effect of bulk and interfacial rheological properties on dissolution behavior of a bubble in an infinite medium at saturated conditions. Either bulk or interfacial elasticity can stop the bubble dissolution process, and stability criteria are defined for the elastic cases. In the case of an elastic interface with dilation modulus E(d) and a bubble with an initial radius R(0) and initial interfacial tension sigma(0), the bubble is stabilized as it has shrunk to a relative radius of varepsilon=R/R(0)=exp(-sigma(0)/2E(d))). In case of an elastic bulk with modulus G a bubble will shrink until GR(0)=4sigma(0)varepsilon(3)/(1-5varepsilon(4)+4varepsilon(3)) is fulfilled. Bulk and interfacial viscosity can retard the dissolution process if their magnitude exceeds a certain critical value but will never completely stop bubble dissolution. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.