Limited impact of traumatic brain injury on the post-traumatic inflammatory cellular response.

PURPOSE: Trauma triggers a systemic inflammatory cellular response due to tissue damage, potentially leading to a secondary immune deficiency. Trauma severity is quantified by the Injury Severity Score (ISS). Severe Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is associated with high ISSs due to high lethality, despite limited tissue damage. Therefore, ISS might overestimate the post-traumatic inflammatory cellular response. This study investigated the effect of TBI on the occurrence of different systemic neutrophil phenotypes as alternative read-out for systemic inflammation. METHODS: A single-center retrospective cohort study was conducted at a level-1 trauma center. Patients aged ≥ 18 years, admitted between 01-03-2021-01-11-2022 and providing a diagnostic blood sample were included. Four groups were created: isolated TBI, isolated non-TBI, multitrauma TBI and multitrauma non-TBI. Primary outcome was occurrence of different neutrophil phenotypes determined by automated flow cytometry. Secondary outcome was infectious complications. RESULTS: In total, 404 patients were included. TBI and non-TBI patients demonstrated similar occurrences of different neutrophil phenotypes. However, isolated TBI patients had higher ISSs than their isolated non-TBI controls who suffered similar post-traumatic inflammatory cellular responses. Regardless of the type of injury, patients exhibiting higher systemic inflammation had a high infection risk. CONCLUSION: When TBI is involved, ISS tends to be higher compared to similar patients in the absence of TBI. However, TBI patients did not demonstrate an increased inflammatory cellular response compared to non-TBI patients. Therefore, TBI does not add much to the inflammatory cellular response in trauma patients. The degree of the inflammatory response was related to the incidence of infectious complications.

A recalibrated prediction model can identify level-1 trauma patients at risk of nosocomial pneumonia.

INTRODUCTION: Nosocomial pneumonia has poor prognosis in hospitalized trauma patients. Croce et al. published a model to predict post-traumatic ventilator-associated pneumonia, which achieved high discrimination and reasonable sensitivity. We aimed to externally validate Croce's model to predict nosocomial pneumonia in patients admitted to a Dutch level-1 trauma center. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study included all trauma patients (≥ 16y) admitted for > 24 h to our level-1 trauma center in 2017. Exclusion criteria were pneumonia or antibiotic treatment upon hospital admission, treatment elsewhere > 24 h, or death < 48 h. Croce's model used eight clinical variables-on trauma severity and treatment, available in the emergency department-to predict nosocomial pneumonia risk. The model's predictive performance was assessed through discrimination and calibration before and after re-estimating the model's coefficients. In sensitivity analysis, the model was updated using Ridge regression. RESULTS: 809 Patients were included (median age 51y, 67% male, 97% blunt trauma), of whom 86 (11%) developed nosocomial pneumonia. Pneumonia patients were older, more severely injured, and underwent more emergent interventions. Croce's model showed good discrimination (AUC 0.83, 95% CI 0.79-0.87), yet predicted probabilities were too low (mean predicted risk 6.4%), and calibration was suboptimal (calibration slope 0.63). After full model recalibration, discrimination (AUC 0.84, 95% CI 0.80-0.88) and calibration improved. Adding age to the model increased the AUC to 0.87 (95% CI 0.84-0.91). Prediction parameters were similar after the models were updated using Ridge regression. CONCLUSION: The externally validated and intercept-recalibrated models show good discrimination and have the potential to predict nosocomial pneumonia. At this time, clinicians could apply these models to identify high-risk patients, increase patient monitoring, and initiate preventative measures. Recalibration of Croce's model improved the predictive performance (discrimination and calibration). The recalibrated model provides a further basis for nosocomial pneumonia prediction in level-1 trauma patients. Several models are accessible via an online tool. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, Prognostic/Epidemiological Study.

Longitudinal assessment of the inflammatory response: The next step in personalized medicine after severe trauma.

Infections in trauma patients are an increasing and substantial cause of morbidity, contributing to a mortality rate of 5-8% after trauma. With increased early survival rates, up to 30-50% of multitrauma patients develop an infectious complication. Trauma leads to a complex inflammatory cascade, in which neutrophils play a key role. Understanding the functions and characteristics of these cells is important for the understanding of their involvement in the development of infectious complications. Recently, analysis of neutrophil phenotype and function as complex biomarkers, has become accessible for point-of-care decision making after trauma. There is an intriguing relation between the neutrophil functional phenotype on admission, and the clinical course (e.g., infectious complications) of trauma patients. Potential neutrophil based cellular diagnostics include subsets based on neutrophil receptor expression, responsiveness of neutrophils to formyl-peptides and FcγRI (CD64) expression representing the infectious state of a patient. It is now possible to recognize patients at risk for infectious complications when presented at the trauma bay. These patients display increased numbers of neutrophil subsets, decreased responsiveness to fMLF and/or increased CD64 expression. The next step is to measure these biomarkers over time in trauma patients at risk for infectious complications, to guide decision making regarding timing and extent of surgery and administration of (preventive) antibiotics.

Epidemiology of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury in the Netherlands: Emergency Medical Service, Hospital, and Functional Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Evaluating treatment of traumatic spinal cord injuries (TSCIs) from the prehospital phase until postrehabilitation is crucial to improve outcomes of future TSCI patients. OBJECTIVE: To describe the flow of patients with TSCI through the prehospital, hospital, and rehabilitation settings and to relate treatment outcomes to emergency medical services (EMS) transport locations and surgery timing. METHOD: Consecutive TSCI admissions to a level I trauma center (L1TC) in the Netherlands between 2015 and 2018 were retrospectively identified. Corresponding EMS, hospital, and rehabilitation records were assessed. RESULTS: A total of 151 patients were included. Their median age was 58 (IQR 37-72) years, with the majority being male (68%) and suffering from cervical spine injuries (75%). In total, 66.2% of the patients with TSCI symptoms were transported directly to an L1TC, and 30.5% were secondarily transferred in from a lower level trauma center. Most injuries were due to falls (63.0%) and traffic accidents (31.1%), mainly bicycle-related. Most patients showed stable vital signs in the ambulance and the emergency department. After hospital discharge, 71 (47.0%) patients were admitted to a rehabilitation hospital, and 34 (22.5%) patients went home. The 30-day mortality rate was 13%. Patients receiving acute surgery (<12 hours) compared to subacute surgery (>12h, <2 weeks) showed no significance in functional independence scores after rehabilitation treatment. CONCLUSION: A surge in age and bicycle-injuries in TSCI patients was observed. A substantial number of patients with TSCI were undertriaged. Acute surgery (<12 hours) showed comparable outcomes results in subacute surgery (>12h, <2 weeks) patients.

Management strategies and outcome of blunt traumatic abdominal wall defects: a single centre experience.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic abdominal wall defects (TAWDs) following blunt trauma are uncommon injuries with an incidence reported less than 1%. Improved diagnostics and subsequent early detection of otherwise rare injuries raise more questions concerning their treatment. There is lack of consensus on treatment and timing of TAWD. The aim of this study was to analyse the management strategy and outcomes of these injuries in our level I trauma centre. METHODS: All trauma patients who presented with a TAWD at our trauma centre between 2007 and 2016 were retrospectively reviewed. Blunt abdominal wall injuries were classified, patient characteristics, concomitant injuries and treatment characteristics were recorded. In addition, telephone surveys were conducted to assess patient reported quality of life. RESULTS: In a period of nearly ten years 21 patients with a TAWD were treated in our hospital, approximately 0.17% of all admitted trauma patients. Seventeen patients were classified as polytrauma patient. Seventeen patients underwent surgical repair in whom 5 recurrences occurred. All of the recurrences were in patients treated without mesh repair (p = 0.03). The quality of life in terms of EQ-VAS was similar for patients treated with and without mesh repair and reasonable when compared to the reference population. Overall quality of life was lower compared to the reference population, mainly due to limitations in daily activities, mobility and pain. CONCLUSION: Using mesh in the treatment of TAWD, in our hands, showed significantly less recurrences compared to primary closure. We therefore recommend the use of mesh in the repair of TAWDs, both in the acute as well as in the delayed setting when feasible.

Outcome in Patients with Isolated Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.

INTRODUCTION: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a major cause of death. Withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment (WLST) can be initiated if there is little anticipated chance of recovery to an acceptable quality of life. The aim of this study was firstly to investigate WLST rates in patients with moderate to severe isolated TBI and secondly to assess outcome data in the survivor group. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed. Patients aged ≥ 18 years with moderate or severe isolated TBI admitted to the ICU of a single academic hospital between 2011 and 2015 were included. Exclusion criteria were isolated spinal cord injury and referrals to and from other hospitals. Gathered data included demographics, mortality, cause of death, WLST, and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) score after three months. Good functional outcome was defined as GOS > 3. RESULTS: Of 367 patients, 179 patients were included after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria. 55 died during admission (33%), of whom 45 (82%) after WLST. Patients undergoing WLST were older, had worse neurological performance at presentation, and had more radiological abnormalities than patients without WLST. The decision to withdraw life-sustaining treatment was made on the day of admission in 40% of patients. In 33% of these patients, this decision was made while the patient was in the Emergency Department. 71% of survivors had a good functional outcome after three months. No patient left hospital with an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) or suffered from UWS after three months. One patient died within three months of discharge. CONCLUSION: In-hospital mortality in isolated brain injured patients was 33%. The vast majority died after a decision to withdraw life-sustaining treatment. None of the patients were discharged with an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome.

Increased reduction in exsanguination rates leaves brain injury as the only major cause of death in blunt trauma.

INTRODUCTION: Central nervous system (CNS) related injuries and exsanguination have been the most common causes of death in trauma for decades. Despite improvements in haemorrhage control in recent years exsanguination is still a major cause of death. We conducted a prospective database study to investigate the current incidence of haemorrhage related mortality. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective database study of all trauma patients admitted to an urban major trauma centre between January 2007 and December 2016 was conducted. All in-hospital trauma deaths were included. Cause of death was reviewed by a panel of trauma surgeons. Patients who were dead on arrival were excluded. Trends in demographics and outcome were analysed per year. Further, 2 time periods (2007-2012 and 2013-2016) were selected representing periods before and after implementation of haemostatic resuscitation and damage control procedures in our hospital to analyse cause of death into detail. RESULTS: 11,553 trauma patients were admitted, 596 patients (5.2%) died. Mean age of deceased patients was 61 years and 61% were male. Mechanism of injury (MOI) was blunt in 98% of cases. Mean ISS was 28 with head injury the most predominant injury (mean AIS head 3.4). There was no statistically significant difference in sex and MOI over time. Even though deceased patients were older in 2016 compared to 2007 (67 vs. 46 years, p < 0.001), mortality was lower in later years (p = 0.02). CNS related injury was the main cause of death in the whole decade; 58% of patients died of CNS in 2007-2012 compared to 76% of patients in 2013-2016 (p = 0.001). In 2007-2012 9% died of exsanguination compared to 3% in 2013-2016 (p = 0.001). DISCUSSION: In this cohort in a major trauma centre death by exsanguination has decreased to 3% of trauma deaths. The proportion of traumatic brain injury has increased over time and has become the most common cause of death in blunt trauma. Besides on-going prevention of brain injury future studies should focus on treatment strategies preventing secondary damage of the brain once the injury has occurred.

[Emergency laparotomy in a trauma patient]. / De spoedlaparotomie bij een traumapatiënt.

- Emergency laparotomy in trauma patients can be part of the resuscitation process, is based on damage control principles and is therefore fundamentally different from elective laparotomy, for example in case of malignancies. - Indications for emergency laparotomy after trauma are based on haemodynamic instability of the patient and the procedure is focused on restoring the patient's physiological condition.- Haemodynamic and biochemical parameters are used to determine the rest of the strategy. In order to optimize the procedure, the entire treatment team should be practiced in this.- Fewer and fewer surgeons are carrying out general laparotomies and even fewer are carrying out emergency laparotomies after trauma.- Knowledge and skills about emergency laparotomy after trauma are at risk of disappearing because of this, not only for surgeons but also for other team members.- Increased centralisation, team training, more cooperation and consultation for specific indications may all contribute to expertise preservation.

A rare type of ankle fracture: Syndesmotic rupture combined with a high fibular fracture without medial injury.

High fibular spiral fractures are usually caused by pronation-external rotation mechanism. The foot is in pronation and the talus externally rotates, causing a rupture of the medial ligaments or a fracture of the medial malleolus. With continued rotation the anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligament will rupture, and finally, the energy leaves the fibula by creating a spiral fracture from anterior superior to posterior inferior. In this article we demonstrate a type of ankle fracture with syndesmotic injury and high fibular spiral fractures without a medial component. This type of ankle fractures cannot be explained by the Lauge-Hansen classification, since it lacks injury on the medial side of the ankle, but it does have the fibular fracture pattern matching the pronation external rotation injury (anterior superior to posterior inferior fracture). We investigated the mechanism of this injury illustrated by 3 cases and postulate a theory explaining the biomechanics behind this type of injury.

The effect of evolving trauma care on the development of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is still a major threat to polytrauma patients, since sepsis-related organ failure is the most common cause of late mortality in these patients. In this article, the development of trauma surgery and evolution of trauma care from early total care to damage control surgery is discussed. Increasing knowledge of the pathophysiology of trauma has enabled us to identify the inflammatory response induced by trauma. By understanding the pathophysiology, we may be able to fully comprehend the origin of multiple organ dysfunction related sepsis. Further, it is important to appreciate the influence of surgery on the inflammatory response induced by trauma, and subsequently on the development of inflammatory complications. It is crucial to offer the polytrauma patient the appropriate type of surgery at the right time to prevent further deterioration. CONCLUSION: MODS is still highly lethal, and once it has developed it is difficult to treat, so it is vital to be able to predict its occurrence. If we knew how to predict MODS, we might be able to develop strategies to prevent this syndrome.

Lipopolysaccharide and hemorrhagic shock cause systemic inflammation by different mechanisms.

BACKGROUND: Hemorrhagic shock (HS) and sepsis are common after trauma. These trauma patients often need ventilatory support. The resulting hyperinflammatory state can cause neutrophil-mediated complications such as adult respiratory distress syndrome. An important underlying mechanism is polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) priming by damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs, caused by, e.g., HS and ventilation) and by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs, e.g., lipopolysaccharide [LPS] in sepsis). The aim of this study was to compare the inflammatory response induced by DAMPs (liberated during HS) and PAMPs (LPS challenge) under conditions of high-volume ventilation. METHODS: Twenty-seven male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized for mechanical ventilation (MV) alone (9 rats; positive end-expiratory pressure, 5 cm H2O; pressure control, +20 cm H2O; FIO2, 0.33), MV + HS (9 rats; hemorrhage, 30% volume loss) or MV + LPS (9 rats, LPS, 5mg/kg intravenously administered). Five rats were used as controls. Total PMN count and differentials were determined. In addition, the expression of activation markers (CD62L and CD11b) on blood-derived PMNs was measured by flow cytometry. Pulmonary inflammatory response was measured by PMN counts in bronchoalveolar fluid. The presence of neutrophils in the lung was determined by total myeloperoxidase. Results are expressed as means ± SEM; p ≤ 0.05 is considered statistically significant. RESULTS: All treated rats had more neutrophils in the blood and bronchoalveolar fluid compared with the controls. Myeloperoxidase was significantly higher in all groups compared with controls. MV and MV + HS rats had more blood neutrophils with CD62L(bright)/CD11b(dim) phenotypes, whereas MV + LPS rats showed more CD62L(dim)/CD11b(bright) neutrophils, indicative for activated cells. CONCLUSION: All ventilated rats showed a systemic inflammatory response. The responses to HS and MV were very similar, suggesting a common pathway of DAMP-associated inflammation. In marked contrast, LPS showed a different neutrophil phenotype (CD62L(dim)/CD11b(bright)), suggesting a different inflammatory response. It is concluded that shock induced by DAMPs and PAMPs have different underlying mechanisms.

Blunt traumatic carotid artery dissection still a pitfall? The rationale for aggressive screening.

INTRODUCTION: The optimal diagnostic strategy for carotid dissection following blunt trauma is yet unclear. The rationale for aggressive screening will be discussed based on a consecutive case series of blunt traumatic carotid artery dissection (CAD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Five patients admitted to our level I trauma center developed severe complications as a consequence of blunt traumatic CAD. The diagnosis of CAD was delayed in all five patients until serious cerebral ischemia occurred. Despite the current awareness that CAD can result from blunt trauma, this type of injury is often overlooked. Clinical and radiological advances have considerably increased the knowledge of incidence and underlying mechanisms of traumatic CAD. This could have implications for case identification and the evaluation of treatment strategies in clinical trials in the future. CONCLUSION: Screening may increase the rate of early CAD diagnosis, but it is unclear if screening will also result in early detection of a treatable lesion. Trials have to provide the answer to whether initiating therapy will lead to improvements in the outcome in traumatic CAD. We therefore believe that screening is a basic condition for initiation of future clinical trials.

Possible devices to temporary cover the open abdomen: pros and cons.

In the last 25 years increased popularity of damage control surgery and recognition of abdominal compartment syndrome has lead to a raised incidence of open abdomens. Even though these procedures are often life-saving, morbidity and mortality associated with an open abdomen remains high. Third spacing after aggressive fluid resuscitation, fascial retraction, ventilatory problems and fistula formations are problems often associated with an open abdomen. Management of an open abdomen is often complicated and challenging. The viscera need to be protected and the abdomen needs coverage. Several techniques have been described for both temporary and definitive closure. This article will discuss the pros and cons of several available temporary devices to cover the abdomen and literature will be reviewed.

Patent processus vaginalis in the adult as a risk factor for the occurrence of indirect inguinal hernia.

BACKGROUND: Inguinal hernias are a common entity with nearly 31,000 repairs annually in The Netherlands and over 800,000 in the USA. The aim of the present study is to determine whether a laparoscopically diagnosed patent processus vaginalis (PPV) is a risk factor for the development of groin hernia. METHODS: The study population was originally composed of 599 consecutive cases (189 male, 32%) of laparoscopic transperitoneal surgery for different indications performed in 4 teaching hospitals in The Netherlands between November 1998 and February 2002. During laparoscopy, the deep inguinal ring was inspected bilaterally. The PPV group was compared with the obliterative processus vaginalis (OPV) group. RESULTS: After a mean follow-up of 5.5 years, the studied population consisted of 337 cases (94 male, 28%). In this study 12% of the studied population appeared to have PPV in adult life. The percentage PPV of our study group is much higher than the percentage of hernia repairs performed in the Dutch population. A greater proportion (12%) of hernia repairs in the PPV group was found as compared with the OPV group (3%). The chance of developing an inguinal hernia within 5.3 years is four times higher in the group with PPV. No significant correlation between age and the prevalence of PPV was observed. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that PPV is an etiologic factor and a risk factor for acquiring an indirect inguinal hernia in adults.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy in breast cancer: results of intradermal periareolar tracer injection and follow-up of sentinel lymph node-negative patients.

Several methods are in use for identification of the sentinel lymph node (SLN) in breast cancer. We set up the hypothesis that intradermal (i.d.) infra-areolar injection of technetium-99m in combination with i.d. injection of patent blue dye lateral to the areola can identify the same lymph node as peritumoral injection, regardless of the location of the tumour. Each of 50 patients with breast cancer (group I) received an i.d. injection of technetium-99m 1cm caudal to the areola. After induction, blue dye was injected intradermally 1cm lateral to the areola. These patients underwent axillary dissection regardless of their lymph node status. The SLN was identified in 96% of these patients. One of them had axillary lymph node metastases even though the SLN was negative (6%). Further 82 patients (group II) underwent SLN identification and removal without further axillary dissection. The duration of mean follow-up for these patients was 28 months (16-39 months). One patient developed axillary recurrence (1%) 24 months after the initial operation. Intradermal periareolar tracer injection is an accurate method of locating the sentinel node. Long-term follow-up of patients who had negative sentinel nodes and did not undergo axillary dissection revealed a low axillary recurrence rate.

The etiology of indirect inguinal hernias: congenital and/or acquired?

The development of indirect inguinal hernias in infants is caused by a patent processus vaginalis (PPV). Consequently, this type of hernia is cured by simple herniotomy. In adults, however, herniotomy alone is accompanied by a high recurrence rate. This indicates that additional factors play a part in the development of indirect inguinal hernias in adults. The aim of this study was to determine the etiology of the development of an indirect hernia in adult life. Also, the prevalence of a PPV without clinical evidence of a hernia was determined and related to age. From November 1998 until February 2002, 599 patients from four different teaching hospitals, who underwent abdominal laparoscopy for various pathologies, were included. During laparoscopy, the deep inguinal ring was bilaterally inspected. Patients undergoing laparoscopy for inguinal hernia repair were excluded. Mean age was 45 years (range 8-89 years). Thirty-two percent (189/599) were male. Twelve percent (71/599) had PPV, all without clinical symptoms. Fifty-five percent (39/71) with PPV were male (P<0.0001). Fifty-nine percent (42/71) with PPV were right-sided, 29% (21/71) with PPV were left sided, and 12% (8/71) were bilateral (P=0.01). The prevalence of PPV in patients under 20 years was 22%. Of those between 20 and 30 years of age, 6% had PPV. Of those between 30 and 50 years, 24 patients (11%) had PPV. Of patients over 50 years, 33 (14%) had PPV. No significant differences between ages were observed. It is concluded that asymptomatic patent processus vaginalis frequently exists in adult life. The prevalence of PPV does not increase significantly with age. Assuming that indirect hernias start with asymptomatic peritoneal protrusion that can be observed laparoscopically, the incidence of PPV, like the incidence of adult indirect hernias, should increase in case of acquired etiology. Such an increase of incidence with age was not confirmed by our results. It is concluded that the etiology of indirect inguinal hernia in adults, as in infants, is congenital.

Cutaneous nephrocolonic fistula as a consequence of a kidney stone.

We report an unusual case of cutaneous nephrocolonic fistula caused by a renal calculus with perirenal infection. The diagnosis was made by fistulography and computed tomography, after which nephrectomy and resection of the descending colon were successful. We also review the literature on cutaneous nephrocolonic fistulas.

[Laparoscopic splenectomy for hematological diseases; results in 28 patients]. / Laparoscopische splenectomie voor hematologische aandoeningen; resultaten bij 28 patiënten.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the first results of laparoscopic splenectomy for haematological diseases and the learning curve. DESIGN: Retrospective. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Data of all patients who underwent a laparoscopic splenectomy in October 1994-July 1998 in the University Hospital Rotterdam, Department of surgery, the Netherlands, were collected from electronic databases. Data on postoperative complications were collected from medical records. Patients with splenomegaly (> 15 cm) were not eligible for the procedure. RESULTS: 28 patients were eligible for a laparoscopic splenectomy. The male:female ratio was 1:4. The mean age was 35 years. The indications for surgery were idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP; n = 24), Gilbert syndrome (n = 1), spherocytosis (n = 1), thalassaemia (n = 1) and haemolytic anaemia with ITP (n = 1). Conversion to an open procedure was necessary in 5 of 28 laparoscopic splenectomies (18%). The median operating time was 172 minutes. Complications occurred in four patients: pneumonia (n = 2), bleeding (n = 1) and urosepsis (n = 1). The median hospital stay was 5 days (range: 1-18). The first 14 laparoscopic splenectomies differed from the following 14 by a higher conversion rate (p = 0.01), a longer operation time (p = 0.002) and a longer hospital stay (p = 0.004). In 23 out of 25 patients with ITP the thrombocyte count became normal. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopic splenectomy is associated with a learning curve, with a high incidence of conversion in the early procedures. It appears to be a safe and effective operation.