Same-Sex Kissing and Having a Gay or Lesbian Child: A Bridge Too Far? Parent-Child Similarities in Homophobic Attitudes and Observed Parental Discomfort.

This study examined parent-child similarities in homophobic attitudes and observed parental discomfort with coming-out vignettes in interactions with their adolescent children (14-18 years old). Based on gender schema theory and the family process model we expected parent-child similarities in homophobic attitudes to be stronger in same-gender dyads. Further, we expected that observed parental discomfort with coming-out vignettes would occur and is stronger when the gender of the parent, child, and character in the vignette match. We used questionnaires and observation data from 199 White Dutch families in the Netherlands. Our results showed that parents' homophobic attitudes were associated with their children's homophobic attitudes. For same-sex kissing and (imagining) having a gay son, these associations were stronger between parents and children of the same gender. Further, parental discomfort with coming-out vignettes occurred and was stronger when parents and children had the same gender, regardless of the gender of the vignette character. In conclusion, policies aiming at gay and lesbian inclusion should not be limited to accepting gay/lesbian identities, but also pay attention to the acceptance of same-sex intimacy expressions, having gay or lesbian family members, and normalizing discussions about gay/lesbian lives.

Fathers' and mothers' sensitivity during free play with gendered toys.

This study examined whether fathers' and mothers' sensitivity toward sons and daughters varies depending on whether they play with stereotypical girls' toys or boys' toys. In a sample of 144 predominantly White Dutch families with a child aged 4-6 years, fathers' and mothers' sensitivity was observed during two free play episodes while they played with their son or daughter. One play episode was with stereotypical boys' toys, and the other was with stereotypical girls' toys. Results showed that mothers' but not fathers' sensitivity scores, depended on whether they played with a son or daughter and whether they played with stereotypically boys' toys or girls' toys. Mothers were more sensitive to their daughters when they played with girls' toys than with boys' toys. In addition, mothers playing with daughters were more sensitive than mothers playing with sons when they played with girls' toys. Mothers' differential sensitivity during gender-typed play could be a gender socialization practice that subtly contributes to gender inequality in societal roles and careers, especially for daughters. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Growing up together: Differences between siblings in the development of compliance separating within-family and between-family effects.

This study applies a within-family, age-snapshot design to investigate differences between siblings in the development of compliance during the preschool years by disaggregating situational, within-family, and between-family effects. The aim of the study was to investigate the relation between sibling differences in compliance and the within-family factors birth order and differential parenting, as well as interactions between these factors. Using observational data of 311 Dutch families (self-identified as culturally Dutch) with 2 children when each child was 3 and 4 years old (firstborns: 36.2 months old; SD = 3.6; 48% girls, second-borns (2 years later): 36.67 months old; SD = .62; 47% girls) and both parents. Three-level cross-classified multilevel models showed main effects of observed sibling noncompliance and differential verbal discipline on noncompliance. In addition, second-born children were more compliant than their firstborn siblings, but only when the firstborn was disciplined physically more often than his/her younger sibling. The results provide evidence that birth-order effects may partially be explained by differential parenting and suggest that differences between siblings cannot be fully understood without taking into account the influence of both direct and indirect sibling effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Triadic family conversations about gender: Children as driving forces and messiness in messages they receive.

The goal of the present study was to unravel the unique contributions of fathers, mothers, and preschoolers to conversations about gender during picture book reading, as well as examining the relationship between parents' gender messages and their stereotypes. The sample consisted of 142 families. During a home visit, triadic parent-child Gender Stereotypes Picture Book reading was filmed to code implicit and explicit forms of gender talk. A computer task (implicit attitudes) and questionnaire (explicit attitudes) were used to measure parents' gender stereotypes. As expected, the gender picture book evoked questions and statements about gender (mostly from mothers). Regarding implicit forms of gender talk (i.e., gender labeling and evaluating activities), we found no structural differences between the three family members in terms of expressing stereotypical or contra-stereotypical ideas. There were also no differences between boys and girls in (receiving and expressing) implicit gender messages about the pictures. Regarding conversations that included explicit forms of gender talk, we found a pattern in which children started most often with a stereotypical comment, followed by questions (mostly mothers), confirmations, and negations by the parents. It was remarkable that children frequently received mixed messages in response to their stereotypical comments, and that children tended to stick to their stereotypical opinion even when challenged by their parents. Parents' gender messages were not structurally related to their gender stereotypes. This study shows that children are a driving force of family conversations about gender, and reveals messiness in the gender messages children receive from their parents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Fathers: The interplay between testosterone levels and self-control in relation to parenting quality.

In this study, we examined the potential interaction effect between fathers' basal testosterone levels and their ability to control their impulses in relation to their quality of parenting. Participants included 159 fathers and their preschoolers. Evening and morning salivary samples were analyzed with isotope dilution-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (ID-LC-MS/MS) to determine basal testosterone (T) levels. During a home-visit, fathers' self-control was measured with a computerized Go/NoGo task, and their sensitivity and respect for child autonomy was observed in a free-play session. We found that higher T levels in the evening were related to less respect for child autonomy, but only in fathers with low self-control. Further, higher T in the evening was related to more sensitive parenting, yet only in fathers with high self-control. These findings indicate that different aspects of fathers' quality of parenting are differently affected by the interaction between T and self-control. Further research is needed to clarify the interplay between fathers' neuro-endocrine system functioning and their trait characteristics in relation to the development of father-child relationships.

Mothers' and fathers' sensitivity with their two children: A longitudinal study from infancy to early childhood.

To examine the effects of child age and birth order on sensitive parenting, 364 families with 2 children were visited when the second-born children were 12, 24, and 36 months old, and their older siblings were on average 2 years older. Mothers showed higher levels of sensitivity than fathers at all assessments. Parental sensitivity increased from infancy to toddlerhood, and then decreased into early childhood. The changes in parental sensitivity with child age were similar for mothers and fathers, and mothers' and fathers' sensitivity levels were related over time. However, the changes in parental sensitivity toward the firstborn and second-born child were not related to each other, suggesting that parents' experiences with the firstborn child do not have implications for their sensitivity toward their second-born child. Instead, the child's own unique characteristics and developmental stage seem to play a more important role. These findings highlight the importance of considering developmental child characteristics in the study of parenting, and suggest that individual differences in attaining developmental milestones may affect parental sensitivity. (PsycINFO Database Record

Gender Differences in Child Aggression: Relations With Gender-Differentiated Parenting and Parents' Gender-Role Stereotypes.

This longitudinal study examines the association between child gender and child aggression via parents' physical control, moderated by parents' gender-role stereotypes in a sample of 299 two-parent families with a 3-year-old child in the Netherlands. Fathers with strong stereotypical gender-role attitudes and mothers were observed to use more physical control strategies with boys than with girls, whereas fathers with strong counterstereotypical attitudes toward gender roles used more physical control with girls than with boys. Moreover, when fathers had strong attitudes toward gender roles (stereotypical or counterstereotypical), their differential treatment of boys and girls completely accounted for the gender differences in children's aggressive behavior a year later. Mothers' gender-differentiated parenting practices were unrelated to gender differences in child aggression.

Associations Between Fathers' and Mothers' Psychopathology Symptoms, Parental Emotion Socialization, and Preschoolers' Social-Emotional Development.

In this study we tested whether the relation between fathers' and mothers' psychopathology symptoms and child social-emotional development was mediated by parents' use of emotion talk about negative emotions in a sample of 241 two-parent families. Parents' internalizing and externalizing problems were measured with the Adult Self Report and parental emotion talk was observed while they discussed a picture book with their children (child age: 3 years). Children's parent-reported internalizing and externalizing problems and observed prosocial behaviors were assessed at the age of 3 years and again 12 months later. We found that mothers' use of emotion talk partially mediated the positive association between fathers' internalizing problems and child internalizing problems. Fathers' internalizing problems predicted more elaborative mother-child discussions about negative emotions, which in turn predicted more internalizing problems in children a year later. Mothers' externalizing problems directly predicted more internalizing and externalizing problems in children. These findings emphasize the importance of examining the consequences of parental psychological difficulties for child development from a family-wide perspective.

Diurnal testosterone variability is differentially associated with parenting quality in mothers and fathers.

Previous studies on the relation between testosterone (T) levels and parenting have found ample evidence for the challenge hypothesis, demonstrating that high T levels inhibit parental involvement and that becoming a parent is related to a decrease in T levels in both mothers and fathers. However, less is known about the relation between T levels and more qualitative aspects of parenting. In the current study we examined basal T levels and diurnal variability in T levels in relation to mothers' and fathers' parenting quality. Participants included 217 fathers and 124 mothers with two children (3 and 5years of age). Evening and morning salivary T samples were analyzed with radio-immunoassays to determine circulating T levels. Parental sensitivity (i.e., child-centered responsiveness) and respect for children's autonomy were observed during free play in the family home. The results showed that higher evening T levels in mothers were associated with more sensitivity to the oldest and youngest child. Diurnal T variability was more consistently associated with parenting behavior towards their children than basal T levels. For fathers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with more sensitivity and more respect for autonomy with their youngest children. For mothers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with less sensitivity to both children and less respect for the youngest child's autonomy. These findings suggest that the T system might act differently in relation to parenting behavior in males and females.

Fathers' and mothers' emotion talk with their girls and boys from toddlerhood to preschool age.

Goals of the current study were to examine fathers' and mothers' emotion talk from toddlerhood to preschool age, and to test whether parents socialize emotions differently in girls and boys. In a sample of 317 families, we observed both parents' emotion talk and their use of gender labels, while discussing a picture book with drawings of children displaying 4 basic emotions (anger, fear, sadness, and happiness), with their first- and second-born children when the children were 4 and 2 years of age, respectively, and again 12 months later. Findings revealed that parents generally elaborated more on emotions with the second-born children when the children were 3 years of age than when they were 2 years old. With their firstborn children parents elaborated less on emotions when the children were 5 years old than when they were 4 years of age. Further, mothers elaborated more on emotions than fathers. Parents' use of gender labels for the children in the pictures showed that parents associated anger more with boys, whereas they associated sadness and happiness more with girls. These findings suggest that parents adjust their emotion socialization strategies to their child's level of emotion understanding, and that both parents convey stereotypical gender messages during parent-child discussion of emotions.

Mothers, fathers, sons and daughters: parental sensitivity in families with two children.

Most studies on early childhood parenting include only mothers. Fathers are rarely observed in interaction with their young children, although they play an important role in the socialization of their children. In this study, we observed parenting of mothers and fathers toward their sons and daughters in families with two children, using a within-family approach in a sample with systematically varying family constellations. Participants included 389 families with two children (1 and 3 years of age). Parenting practices were coded during free play using the Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008). Findings revealed that mothers showed higher levels of sensitivity and lower levels of intrusiveness toward their children than fathers. Furthermore, mothers and fathers were more sensitive and less intrusive toward their oldest child than toward their youngest child. Fathers' higher intrusiveness toward the youngest child was only found in the case of a youngest boy. Child gender was not related to parenting in any of the other analyses. Our results suggest that parent gender is more salient than child gender in the prediction of parenting practices in early childhood.