Inducible expression of interleukin-12 augments the efficacy of affinity-tuned chimeric antigen receptors in murine solid tumor models.

The limited number of targetable tumor-specific antigens and the immunosuppressive nature of the microenvironment within solid malignancies represent major barriers to the success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapies. Here, using epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) as a model antigen, we used alanine scanning of the complementarity-determining region to fine-tune CAR affinity. This allowed us to identify CARs that could spare primary epithelial cells while still effectively targeting EpCAMhigh tumors. Although affinity-tuned CARs showed suboptimal antitumor activity in vivo, we found that inducible secretion of interleukin-12 (IL-12), under the control of the NFAT promoter, can restore CAR activity to levels close to that of the parental CAR. This strategy was further validated with another affinity-tuned CAR specific for intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Only in affinity-tuned CAR-T cells was NFAT activity stringently controlled and restricted to tumors expressing the antigen of interest at high levels. Our study demonstrates the feasibility of specifically gearing CAR-T cells towards recognition of solid tumors by combining inducible IL-12 expression and affinity-tuned CAR.

Bispecific CAR T Cells against EpCAM and Inducible ICAM-1 Overcome Antigen Heterogeneity and Generate Superior Antitumor Responses.

Adoptive transfer of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells has demonstrated unparalleled responses in hematologic cancers, yet antigen escape and tumor relapse occur frequently. CAR T-cell therapy for patients with solid tumors faces even greater challenges due to the immunosuppressive tumor environment and antigen heterogeneity. Here, we developed a bispecific CAR to simultaneously target epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) to overcome antigen escape and to improve the durability of tumor responses. ICAM-1 is an adhesion molecule inducible by inflammatory cytokines and elevated in many types of tumors. Our study demonstrates superior efficacy of bispecific CAR T cells compared with CAR T cells targeting a single primary antigen. Bispecific CAR T achieved more durable antitumor responses in tumor models with either homogenous or heterogenous expression of EpCAM. We also showed that the activation of CAR T cells against EpCAM in tumors led to upregulation of ICAM-1, which rendered tumors more susceptible to ICAM-1 targeting by bispecific CAR T cells. Our strategy of additional targeting of ICAM-1 may have broad applications in augmenting the activity of CAR T cells against primary tumor antigens that are prone to antigen loss or downregulation.

Publisher Correction: Manufacturing and preclinical validation of CAR T cells targeting ICAM-1 for advanced thyroid cancer therapy.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

CD4+ T-cell activation for immunotherapy of malignancies using Ii-Key/MHC class II epitope hybrid vaccines.

Active immunotherapy is becoming a reality in the treatment of malignancies. Peptide-based vaccines represent a simple, safe, and economic basis for cancer immunotherapeutics development. However, therapeutic efficacy has been disappointing. Some of the reasons for this, such as selection of patients with advanced disease and ignorance of the delayed activity of many immunotherapeutic vaccines, have hampered the entire field of cancer immunotherapy over the last decade. Another reason for this may be that most peptide regimens historically have focused on activation of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes, having little or only indirect CD4+ T helper (Th) cell activation. We review here evidence for the importance of specific CD4+ Th activation in cancer immunotherapy and the use of Ii-Key technology to accomplish this. Ii-Key (LRMK), a portion of the MHC class II-associated invariant chain (Ii protein), facilitates the direct charging of peptide epitopes onto MHC class II molecules. Directly linking Ii-Key to MHC class II peptide epitopes greatly enhances their potency in activating CD4+ T-cells. The Ii-Key hybrid AE37, generated by linking LRMK to the known HER2 MHC class II epitope HER2 (aa 776-790), has been shown to generate robust, long lasting HER2-specific immune responses both in patients with breast and prostate cancer. Interim data from a phase II study of AE37 in breast cancer patients suggest a possible improvement in clinical outcome. The Ii-Key hybrid technology is compared to other methods for enhancing the potency of peptide immunotherapy for cancer.

MHC class II epitope nesting modulates dendritic cell function and improves generation of antigen-specific CD4 helper T cells.

CD4 Th cells are critical to the development of coordinated immune responses to infections and tumors. Th cells are activated through interactions of the TCR with MHC class II complexed with peptide. T cell activation is dependent on the density of MHC peptide complexes as well as the duration of interaction of the TCR with APCs. In this study, we sought to determine whether MHC class II peptides could be modified with amino acid sequences that facilitated uptake and presentation with the goal of improving Th cell activation in vitro and in vivo. A model epitope derived from the murine folate receptor α, a self- and tumor Ag, was modified at its carboxyl terminus with the invariant chain-derived Ii-Key peptide and at its N terminus with a peptide that enhances uptake of Ag by APC. Modification of a peptide resulted in enhanced generation of high-avidity murine folate receptor α T cells that persisted in vivo and homed to sites of Ag deposition. The nesting approach was epitope and species independent and specifically excluded expansion of CD4 regulatory T cells. The resulting Th cells were therapeutic, enhanced in vivo helper activity and had an increased ability to resist tolerizing immune microenvironments. In addition to improved immunoadjuvants, this epitope modification strategy may be useful for enhancing ex vivo and in vivo generation of Th cells for preventing and treating diseases.

Results from a phase I clinical study of the novel Ii-Key/HER-2/neu(776-790) hybrid peptide vaccine in patients with prostate cancer.

PURPOSE: Active immunotherapy is emerging as a potential therapeutic approach for prostate cancer. We conducted the first phase I trial of an Ii-Key/HER-2/neu(776-790) hybrid peptide vaccine (AE37) with recombinant granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor as adjuvant in patients with HER-2/neu(+) prostate cancer. The primary end points of the study were to evaluate toxicity and monitor patients' immune responses to the vaccine. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Thirty-two HER-2/neu(+), castrate-sensitive, and castrate-resistant prostate cancer patients were enrolled. Of these, 29 patients completed all six vaccination cycles with AE37. Immunologic responses in the total patient population were monitored by delayed-type hypersensitivity and IFN-gamma ELISPOT and intracellular staining. Regulatory T-cell (Treg) frequency and plasma HER-2/neu and transforming growth factor-beta levels were also determined. Immunologic responses were also analyzed among groups of patients with different clinical characteristics. Local/systemic toxicities were monitored throughout the study. RESULTS: Toxicities beyond grade 2 were not observed. Seventy-five percent of patients developed augmented immunity to the AE37 vaccine and 65% to the unmodified AE36 peptide as detected in the IFN-gamma-based ELISPOT assay. Intracellular IFN-gamma analyses revealed that AE37 elicited both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses. Eighty percent of the patients developed a positive delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to AE36. Additionally, significant decreases could be detected in circulating Treg frequencies, plasma HER-2/neu, and serum transforming growth factor-beta levels. Patients with less extensive disease developed better immunologic responses on vaccination. CONCLUSION: AE37 vaccine is safe and can induce HER-2/neu-specific cellular immune responses in patients with castrate-sensitive and castrate-resistant prostate cancer, thus emphasizing the potential of AE37 to target HER-2/neu for the immunotherapy of prostate cancer.

A new era in anticancer peptide vaccines.

The use of synthetic peptides as vaccines aimed at the induction of therapeutic CD8-positive T-cell responses against tumor cells initially experienced great enthusiasm, mostly because of advances in vaccine technology, including design, synthesis, and delivery. However, despite impressive results in animal models, the application of such vaccines in humans has met with only limited success. The therapeutic activity of vaccine-stimulated, tumor-specific, CD8-positive T cells can be hampered through the physical burden of the tumor, tolerance mechanisms, and local factors within the tumor microenvironment. Recently, accumulating evidence has suggested that combining a peptide-based therapeutic vaccination with conventional chemotherapy can uncover the full potential of the antitumor immune response, increasing the success of immunotherapy. In addition, therapeutic vaccination in the preventive setting has been extremely effective in eliciting antitumor responses in preclinical tumor models and has demonstrated good promise clinically in patients with minimal residual disease. The rationale behind preventive vaccination is that patients with minimal tumor burden still have a fully competent immune system capable of developing robust antitumor responses. Finally, therapeutic CD8-positive T-cell peptide vaccines have been improved by coimmunization with T-helper epitopes expressed on long peptides.

Identification of HLA class II H5N1 hemagglutinin epitopes following subvirion influenza A (H5N1) vaccination.

Prophylactic immunization against influenza infection requires CD4+ T-helper cell activity for optimal humoral and cellular immunity. Currently there is one FDA approved H5N1 subvirion vaccine available, although stockpiles of this vaccine are insufficient for broad population coverage and the vaccine has only demonstrated modest immunogenicity. Specific activation of CD4+ T-helper cells using class II H5N1 HA peptide vaccines may be a useful component in immunization strategy and design. Identification of HLA class II HA epitopes was undertaken in this report by obtaining PBMCs from volunteers previously immunized with an H5N1 inactivated subvirion vaccine, followed by direct ex vivo stimulation of CD4+ T cells against different sources of potential HA class II epitopes. In the 1st round of analysis, 35 donors were tested via IFN-gamma ELISPOT using pools of overlapping HA peptides derived from the H5N1 A/Thailand/4(SP-528)/2004 virus, recombinant H5N1 (rHA) and inactivated H5N1 subvirion vaccine. In addition, a series of algorithm-predicted epitopes coupled with the Ii-Key moiety of the MHC class II-associated invariant chain for enhanced MHC class II charging were also included. Specific responses were observed for all 20 peptide pools, with 6-26% of vaccinated individuals responding to any given pool (donor response frequency) and a magnitude of response ranging from 3- to >10-fold above background levels. Responses were similarly observed with the majority of algorithm-predicted epitopes, with a donor response frequency of up to 29% and a magnitude of response ranging from 3-10-fold (11/24 peptides) to >10-fold above background (7/24 peptides). PBMCs from vaccine recipients that had detectable responses to H5N1 rHA following 1st round analysis were used in a 2nd round of testing to confirm the identity of specific peptides based on the results of the 1st screening. Sixteen individual HA peptides identified from the library elicited CD4+ T cell responses between 3- and >10-fold above background, with two peptides being recognized in 21% of recipients tested. Eight of the putative MHC class II epitopes recognized were found in regions showing partial to significant sequence homology with New Caledonia H1N1 influenza HA, while eight were unique to H5N1 HA. This is the first study to identify H5N1 HA epitope-specific T cells in vaccine recipients and offers hope for the design of a synthetic peptide vaccine to prime CD4+ T-helper cells. Such a vaccine could be used to provide at least some minimal level of H5N1 protection on its own and/or prime for a subsequent dose of a more traditional but supply-limited vaccine.

Ii-Key/HPV16 E7 hybrid peptide immunotherapy for HPV16+ cancers.

Activation of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells is critical for vaccine design. We have advanced a novel technology for enhancing activation of antigen-specific CD4+ T helper cells whereby a fragment of the MHC class II-associated invariant chain (Ii-Key) is linked to an MHC class II epitope. An HLA-DR4-restricted HPV16 E7 epitope, HPV16 E7(8-22), was used to create a homologous series of Ii-Key/HPV16 E7 hybrids testing the influence of spacer length on in vivo enhancement of HPV16 E7(8-22)-specific CD4+ T lymphocyte responses. HLA-DR4-tg mice were immunized with Ii-Key/HPV16 E7(8-22) hybrids or the epitope-only peptide HPV16 E7(8-22). As measured by IFN-gamma ELISPOT assay of splenocytes from immunized mice, one of the Ii-Key/HPV16 E7(8-22) hybrids enhanced epitope-specific CD4+ T cell activation 5-fold compared to the HPV16 E7(8-22) epitope-only peptide. We further demonstrated that enhanced CD4+ T cell activation augments the CTL activity of a H-2D(b)-restricted HPV16 E7(49-57) epitope in HLA-DR4+ mice using an in vivo CTL assay. Binding assays indicated that the Ii-Key/HPV16 hybrid has increased affinity to HLA-DR4+ cells relative to the epitope-only peptide, which may explain its increased potency. In summary, Ii-Key hybrid modification of the HLA-DR4-restricted HPV16 E7(8-22) MHC class II epitope generates a potent immunotherapeutic peptide vaccine that may have potential for treating HPV16+ cancers in HLA-DR4+ patients.

CD4+ T cells in antitumor immunity: utility of an li-key HER2/neu hybrid peptide vaccine (AE37).

BACKGROUND: Early clinical trials of HER2/neu-derived peptide vaccines indicate that they may be useful for preventing recurrence in breast cancer patients rendered disease-free after standard-of-care therapy. An effective vaccination strategy will probably require stimulation of T helper (Th) cells. AE37 is an HER2/neu-derived peptide that has been modified to enhance antigen-specific stimulation of Th cells by linkage of the Ii-Key moiety of the MHC class II-associated invariant chain (Ii protein). OBJECTIVE: To review the literature regarding the role of a Th response in immunotherapy with a focus on this novel HER2/neu-derived AE37 peptide. RESULTS/CONCLUSION: Improved immuno-genicity of the AE37 Ii-key hybrid peptide has been demonstrated in animal models, ex vivo patient cells, and, most recently, in a Phase I clinical trial in breast cancer patients. Future clinical trials incorporating AE37 into a peptide vaccine strategy are warranted.

Results of the first phase I clinical trial of the novel II-key hybrid preventive HER-2/neu peptide (AE37) vaccine.

PURPOSE: HER-2/neu is overexpressed in breast cancer and is the source of immunogenic peptides. CD4(+) T-helper peptides for HER-2/neu are being evaluated in vaccine trials. The addition of Ii-Key, a four-amino-acid LRMK modification, increases vaccine potency when compared with unmodified class II epitopes. We present the results of the first human phase I trial of the Ii-Key hybrid HER-2/neu peptide (AE37) vaccine in disease-free, node-negative breast cancer patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The dose escalation trial included five dose groups, to determine safety and optimal dose of the hybrid peptide (100 microg, 500 microg, 1,000 microg) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF; range, 0 to 250 microg). In the event of significant local toxicity, GM-CSF (or peptide in absence of GM-CSF) was reduced by 50%. Immunologic response was monitored by delayed-type hypersensitivity and [(3)H]thymidine proliferative assays for both the hybrid AE37 (LRMK-positive HER-2/neu:776-790) and AE36 (unmodified HER-2/neu:776-790). RESULTS: All 15 patients completed the trial with no grade 3 to 5 toxicities. Dose reductions occurred in 47% of patients. In the second group (peptide, 500 microg; GM-CSF, 250 microg), all patients required dose reductions, prompting peptide-only inoculations in the third group. The vaccine induced dose-dependent immunologic responses in vitro and in vivo to AE37, as well as AE36. CONCLUSION: The hybrid AE37 vaccine seems safe and well tolerated with minimal toxicity if properly dosed. AE37 is capable of eliciting HER-2/neu-specific immune responses, even without the use of an adjuvant. This trial represents the first human experience with the Ii-Key modification, and to our knowledge, AE37 is the first peptide vaccine to show potency in the absence of an immunoadjuvant.

Assessment of Bet v 1-specific CD4+ T cell responses in allergic and nonallergic individuals using MHC class II peptide tetramers.

In this study, we used HLA-DRB1*0101, DRB1*0401, and DRB1*1501 peptide tetramers combined with cytokine surface capture assays to characterize CD4(+) T cell responses against the immunodominant T cell epitope (peptide 141-155) from the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1, in both healthy and allergic individuals. We could detect Bet v 1-specific T cells in the PBMC of 20 birch pollen allergic patients, but also in 9 of 9 healthy individuals tested. Analysis at a single-cell level revealed that allergen-specific CD4(+) T cells from healthy individuals secrete IFN-gamma and IL-10 in response to the allergen, whereas cells from allergic patients are bona fide Th2 cells (producing mostly IL-5, some IL-10, but no IFN-gamma), as corroborated by patterns of cytokines produced by T cell clones. A fraction of Bet v 1-specific cells isolated from healthy, but not allergic, individuals also expresses CTLA-4, glucocorticoid-induced TNF receptor, and Foxp 3, indicating that they represent regulatory T cells. In this model of seasonal exposure to allergen, we also demonstrate the tremendous dynamics of T cell responses in both allergic and nonallergic individuals during the peak pollen season, with an expansion of Bet v 1-specific precursors from 10(-6) to 10(-3) among circulating CD4(+) T lymphocytes. Allergy vaccines should be designed to recapitulate such naturally protective Th1/regulatory T cell responses observed in healthy individuals.

Single cell assessment of allergen-specific T cell responses with MHC class II peptide tetramers: methodological aspects.

BACKGROUND: We report herein critical methodological principles for assessing, at a single cell level, allergen-specific T cell responses using MHC class II peptide tetramers. METHODS: We developed MHC class II peptide tetramers to monitor T cell responses against the immunodominant Bet v 1(141-155) peptide in individuals with either an HLA-DRB1*0101, DRB1*0401 or DRB1*1501 background. In vitro stimulation was performed with serially truncated versions of the Bet v 1(141-155) epitope chemically conjugated to the Ii-Key peptide. RESULTS: Identification of Bet v 1(141-155) as a high-affinity epitope for multiple HLA-DRB1 allotypes led to the development of corresponding tetramers detecting Bet v 1(141-155)-specific T cells with a high specificity and sensitivity. Stimulation with Bet v 1(141-155) Ii-Key conjugate peptides is the most efficient procedure to expand Bet v 1(141-155)-specific CD4+ T cells, allowing to detect such cells in both allergic and healthy individuals. MHC class II Bet v 1(141-155) tetramer-positive T cells produce IFN-gamma and IL-10 in healthy individuals, and IL-5 in allergic patients. Frequencies of Bet v 1-specific CD4+ T cells circulating in the blood of allergic or nonallergic individuals range from approximately 10(-5) to 10(-3) CD4+ T cells, outside or within the pollen season, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: MHC class II peptide tetramers are valuable tools to assess allergen-specific T cell responses, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Selection of a high-affinity T cell epitope, as well as optimization of in vitro stimulation conditions to expand rare T cell progenitors are critical success factors in those analyses.

Ii-Key/HER-2/neu(776-790) hybrid peptides induce more effective immunological responses over the native peptide in lymphocyte cultures from patients with HER-2/neu+ tumors.

We have demonstrated that coupling an immunoregulatory segment of the MHC class II-associated invariant chain (Ii), the Ii-Key peptide, to a promiscuous MHC class II epitope significantly enhances its presentation to CD4+ T cells. Here, a series of homologous Ii-Key/HER-2/neu(776-790) hybrid peptides, varying systematically in the length of the epitope(s)-containing segment, are significantly more potent than the native peptide in assays using T cells from patients with various types of tumors overexpressing HER-2/neu. In particular, priming normal donor and patient PBMCs with Ii-Key hybrid peptides enhances recognition of the native peptide either pulsed onto autologous dendritic cells (DCs) or naturally presented by IFN-gamma-treated autologous tumor cells. Moreover, patient-derived CD4+ T cells primed with the hybrid peptides provide a significantly stronger helper effect to autologous CD8+ T cells specific for the HER-2/neu(435-443) CTL epitope, as illustrated by either IFN-gamma ELISPOT assays or specific autologous tumor cell lysis. Hybrid peptide-specific CD4+ T cells strongly enhanced the antitumor efficacy of HER-2/neu(435-443) peptide-specific CTL in the therapy of xenografted SCID mice inoculated with HER-2/neu overexpressing human tumor cell lines. Our data indicate that the promiscuously presented vaccine peptide HER-2/neu(776-790) is amenable to Ii-Key-enhancing effects and supports the therapeutic potential of vaccinating patients with HER-2/neu+ tumors with such Ii-Key/HER-2/neu(776-790) hybrid peptides.

Suppression of major histocompatibility complex class II-associated invariant chain enhances the potency of an HIV gp120 DNA vaccine.

Summary One function of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-associated invariant chain (Ii) is to prevent MHC class II molecules from binding endogenously generated antigenic epitopes. Ii inhibition leads to MHC class II presentation of endogenous antigens by APC without interrupting MHC class I presentation. We present data that in vivo immunization of BALB/c mice with HIV gp120 cDNA plus an Ii suppressive construct significantly enhances the activation of both gp120-specific T helper (Th) cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Our results support the concept that MHC class II-positive/Ii-negative (class II(+)/Ii(-)) antigen-presenting cells (APC) present endogenously synthesized vaccine antigens simultaneously by MHC class II and class I molecules, activating both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Activated CD4(+) T cells locally strengthen the response of CD8(+) CTL, thus enhancing the potency of a DNA vaccine.

Ii-Key/MHC class II epitope peptides as helper T cell vaccines for cancer and infectious disease.

Potent MHC class II antigenic peptide vaccines are created by covalently linking the N-terminus of a MHC class II epitope through a polymethylene bridge to the C-terminus of the Ii-Key segment of the Ii protein. Such hybrids enhance potency of presentation in vitro of the MHC class II epitope about 200 times relative to the epitope-only peptide. In vivo, as measured by IFN-gamma ELISPOT assays, the helper T cell response to vaccination is enhanced up to 8 times. The design of such hybrid vaccine peptides comes from insight into the mechanism of action of the Ii-Key motif within the Ii protein, in regulating antigenic peptide binding into the antigenic peptide binding groove of MHC class II molecules. Here we present the logic and experimental history of the development of these vaccine peptides, with particular attention to the hypothesized mechanism of action. Methods for the design and testing of these peptides are presented. Experience in developing peptide vaccines for immunotherapy of cancer is reviewed, focusing on the clinical potential of Ii-Key/MHC class II epitope hybrids.

Ii-Key/MHC class II epitope hybrids: a strategy that enhances MHC class II epitope loading to create more potent peptide vaccines.

Life-threatening diseases, such as cancer and pandemic influenza, demand new efforts towards effective vaccine design. Peptides represent a simple, safe and adaptable basis for vaccine development; however, the potency of peptide vaccines is insufficient in most cases for significant therapeutic efficacy. Several methods, such as Ligand Epitope Antigen Presentation System and ISCOMATRIX, have been developed to enhance the potency of peptide vaccines. One way of increasing the loading of MHC class II peptides occurs through the use of Ii-Key technology. Ii-Key (LRMK), a portion of the MHC class II-associated invariant chain (Ii), facilitates the direct loading of epitopes to the MHC class II molecule groove. Linking the Ii-Key moiety via a simple polymethylene bridge to an MHC class II epitope, to generate an Ii-Key/MHC class II epitope hybrid, greatly enhances the vaccine potency of the tethered epitope. The combination of such Ii-Key/MHC class II epitope hybrids with MHC class I epitope-containing peptides might generate a potent peptide vaccine for malignancies and infectious diseases. The Ii-Key hybrid technology is compared with other methods that enhance the potency of a peptide vaccine.

Enhanced CD4+ T-cell response in DR4-transgenic mice to a hybrid peptide linking the Ii-Key segment of the invariant chain to the melanoma gp100(48-58) MHC class II epitope.

Linking the Ii-Key functional group LRMK, through a simple polymethylene linker, to the melanoma gp100(48-58) MHC class II epitope significantly enhances the vaccine response to that epitope in DR4-IE transgenic mice. A homologous series of Ii-Key/gp100(46-58) hybrids was synthesized to test the influence of spacer length (between Ii-Key and the gp100(48-58) epitope) on in vivo enhancement of gp100(48-58)-specific CD4+ T-lymphocyte responses. As measured by IFN-gamma and IL-4 ELISPOT cytokine assays, the most effective vaccine hybrid was the one with a shorter linker between Ii-Key and the epitope. Mechanistic reasons for this observation are considered. This structure-activity relationship was seen with bulk and CD4+ purified T cells, and both primary and secondary in vitro restimulation assays. CFA augmented the IFN-gamma response and to a lesser extent the IL-4 response. CpG enhanced a strong IFN-gamma response, with a negligible IL-4 response. The 3- to 5-times enhancement of the total ELISPOT responses (number of spots x mean spot area) observed after vaccination with peptides consisting of an MHC class II epitope engineered into an Ii-Key hybrid indicates a potent vaccine effect. Such constructs can be applied to many diagnostic and therapeutic uses.

Curative antitumor immune response is optimal with tumor irradiation followed by genetic induction of major histocompatibility complex class I and class II molecules and suppression of Ii protein.

Transfecting genes into tumors, to upregulate major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II molecules and inhibit MHC class II associated invariant chain (Ii), induces a potent anti-tumor immune response when preceded by tumor irradiation, in murine RM-9 prostate carcinoma. The transfected genes are cDNA plasmids for interferon-gamma (pIFN-gamma), MHC class II transactivator (pCIITA), an Ii reverse gene construct (pIi-RGC), and a subtherapeutic dose of adjuvant IL-2 (pIL-2). Responding mice rejected challenge with parental tumor and demonstrated tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). We have extended our investigation to determine the relative roles of each one of the four plasmids pIFN-gamma, pCIITA, pIi-RGC, and pIL-2 in conjunction with radiation for the induction of a curative immune response. Upregulation of MHC class I with pIFN-gamma or class II with pCIITA, separately, does not lead to a complete response even if supplemented with pIL-2 or pIi-RGC. An optimal and specific antitumor response is achieved in more than 50% of the mice when, after tumor irradiation, tumor cells are converted in situ to a MHC class I+/class II+/Ii- phenotype with pIFN-gamma, pCIITA, pIi-RGC, and pIL-2. We demonstrate further that both CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells are essential for induction of an antitumor response because in vivo depletion of either subset abrogates the response. The radiation contributes to the gene therapy by causing tumor debulking and increasing the permeability of tumors to infiltration of inflammatory cells.