Advances in viral oncolytics for treatment of multiple myeloma - a focused review.

INTRODUCTION: Oncolytic viruses are genetically engineered viruses that target myeloma-affected cells by detecting specific cell surface receptors (CD46, CD138), causing cell death by activating the signaling pathway to induce apoptosis or by immune-mediated cellular destruction. AREAS COVERED: This article summarizes oncolytic virotherapy advancements such as the therapeutic use of viruses by targeting cell surface proteins of myeloma cells as well as the carriers to deliver viruses to the target tissues safely. The major classes of viruses that have been studied for this include measles, myxoma, adenovirus, reovirus, vaccinia, vesicular-stomatitis virus, coxsackie, and others. The measles virus acts as oncolytic viral therapy by binding to the CD46 receptors on the myeloma cells to utilize its surface H protein. These H-protein and CD46 interactions lead to cellular syncytia formation resulting in cellular apoptosis. Vesicular-stomatitis virus acts by downregulation of anti-apoptotic factors (Mcl-2, BCL-2). Based upon the published literature searches till December 2020, we have summarized the data supporting the advances in viral oncolytic for the treatment of MM. EXPERT OPINION: Oncolytic virotherapy is an experimental approach in multiple myeloma (MM); many issues need to be addressed for safe viral delivery to the target tissue.

Hydrologic, land cover, and seasonal patterns of waterborne pathogens in Great Lakes tributaries.

Great Lakes tributaries are known to deliver waterborne pathogens from a host of sources. To examine the hydrologic, land cover, and seasonal patterns of waterborne pathogens (i.e. protozoa (2), pathogenic bacteria (4) human viruses, (8) and bovine viruses (8)) eight rivers were monitored in the Great Lakes Basin over 29 months from February 2011 to June 2013. Sampling locations represented a wide variety of land cover classes from urban to agriculture to forest. A custom automated pathogen sampler was deployed at eight sampling locations which provided unattended, flow-weighted, large-volume (120-1630 L) sampling. Human and bovine viruses and pathogenic bacteria were detected by real-time qPCR in 16%, 14%, and 1.4% of 290 samples collected while protozoa were never detected. The most frequently detected pathogens were: bovine polyomavirus (11%), and human adenovirus C, D, F (9%). Human and bovine viruses were present in 16.9% and 14.8% of runoff-event samples (n = 189) resulting from precipitation and snowmelt, and 13.9% and 12.9% of low-flow samples (n = 101), respectively, indicating multiple delivery mechanisms could be influential. Data indicated human and bovine virus prevalence was different depending on land cover within the watershed. Occurrence, concentration, and flux of human viruses were greatest in samples from the three sampling locations with greater than 25% urban influence than those with less than 25% urban influence. Similarly, occurrence, concentration, and flux of bovine viruses were greatest in samples from the two sampling locations with greater than 50 cattle/km2 than those with less than 50 cattle/km2. In seasonal analysis, human and bovine viruses occurred more frequently in spring and winter seasons than during the fall and summer. Concentration, occurrence, and flux in the context of hydrologic condition, seasonality, and land use must be considered for each watershed individually to develop effective watershed management strategies for pathogen reduction.

Molecular analysis of a fragment of bovine leukemia virus env gene by Nested-PCR in dairy cows from Pasto, Nariño / Análisis molecular de un fragmento del gen env del virus de leucosis bovina, por PCR anidada en vacas lecheras de Pasto, Nariño / Análise molecular pela reação em cadeia da polimerase de um fragmento do gene env do vírus de leucose bovina aninhada em vacas leiteiras de Pasto, Nariño

Abstract: Introduction: Routine diagnosis for bovine leukemia is performed using indirect serologic tests, although it is recommended to use polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which allows a reliable diagnosis in early stages and in young animals. Moreover, by amplifying the DNA, it is possible to sequence fragments of the virus, which allows to identify genotypes and to construct phylogenetic trees. Objective: To analyze a fragment of the env gene of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) isolated from indirect ELISA-positive animals in dairy farms in the municipality of Pasto (Nariño). Materials and methods: Once the presence of BLV was established in 48 animals over two years old in seven dairy farms in the municipality of Pasto by indirect ELISA test, a nested PCR test was performed to confirm diagnosis and to sequence a fragment of the env gene in positive animals and their daughters. The sequences obtained were compared with the seven genotypes described worldwide by MEGA 6 program. Results: The sequences of the compared fragments do not differ from those described; but they allow their grouping into different clusters according to their similarity. The genotypes found in these farms correspond to genotype 1 and 2 described in the literature. Conclusions: Only one genotype was found on farms with proper recovery and adequate biosecurity measures, and on farms with less control in management and recovery practices, both genotypes described for the region were evident.

Resumen: Introducción: El diagnóstico de rutina para la leucosis bovina se realiza con pruebas serológicas indirectas, aunque se recomienda usar la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR), que permite un diagnóstico confiable en fases iniciales y en animales jóvenes. Además, mediante la amplificación del ADN se pueden secuenciar fragmentos del virus, que permite identificar los genotipos presentes y construir árboles filogenéticos. Objetivo: Analizar un fragmento del gen env del virus de leucosis bovina (VLB) aislado de animales positivos a ELISA indirecta en fincas lecheras del municipio de Pasto, Nariño. Materiales y métodos: Una vez establecida la presencia del VLB en 48 animales mayores de dos años en siete fincas lecheras del municipio de Pasto mediante la prueba de ELISA indirecta, se realizó una prueba de PCR anidada para confirmar el diagnóstico y secuenciar un fragmento del gen env en los animales positivos y sus hijas. Las secuencias obtenidas se compararon con los siete genotipos descritos en el mundo mediante el programa MEGA 6. Resultados: Las secuencias de los fragmentos comparados no difieren de las descritas; pero permiten su agrupación en diferentes clústeres de acuerdo con su similitud. Los genotipos encontrados en estas fincas corresponden al genotipo 1 y 2 descritos en la literatura. Conclusiones: En las fincas con reposición propia y adecuadas medidas de bioseguridad solo se encontró un genotipo y en las fincas con menor control en las prácticas de manejo y de reposición se encontraron los dos genotipos descritos para la región.

Resumo: Introdução: O diagnóstico de rotina para a leucose bovina se realiza com provas serológicas indiretas, mesmo que se recomenda usar a reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR), que permite um diagnóstico confiável em fases iniciais e em animais jovens. Além do mais, mediante a amplificação do ADN se podem sequenciar fragmentos do vírus, que permite identificar os genótipos presentes e construir árvores filogenéticas. Objetivo: Analisar um fragmento do gene env do vírus de leucose bovina (VLB) isolado de animais positivos a ELISA indireta em fazendas leiteiras do município de Pasto, Nariño. Materiais e métodos: Uma vez estabelecida a presença do VLB em 48 animais maiores de dois anos em sete fazendas leiteiras do município de Pasto mediante a prova de ELISA indireta, se realizou uma prova de PCR aninhada para confirmar o diagnóstico e sequenciar um fragmento do gene env nos animais positivos e suas filhas. As sequências obtidas foram compararam com os sete genótipos descritos no mundo mediante o programa MEGA 6. Resultados: As sequências dos fragmentos comparados não diferem das descritas; mas permitem a sua agrupação em diferentes clusters de acordo com sua similitude. Os genótipos encontrados nestas fazendas correspondem ao genótipo 1 e 2 descritos na literatura. Conclusões: Nas fazendas com reposição própria e adequadas medidas de biossegurança somente se encontrou um genótipo e nas fazendas com menos controle nas práticas de manejo e de reposição se encontraram os dois genótipos descritos para a região.

Estimation of the probability of freedom from bovine virus diarrhoea virus in Norway using scenario tree modelling.

Disease caused by Bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is notifiable in Norway. An eradication programme started in 1992. The number of herds with restrictions decreased from 2950 in 1994 to zero at the end of 2006. From 2007, the aim of the programme has been surveillance in order to document freedom from the infection. To estimate the probability of freedom from BVDV infection in the Norwegian cattle population by the end of 2011, a scenario tree model of the surveillance program during the years 2007-2011 was used. Three surveillance system components (SSCs) were included in the model: dairy, beef suckler sampled at farms (2007-2010) and beef suckler sampled at slaughterhouses (2011). The design prevalence was set to 0.2% at herd level and to 30% at within-herd level for the whole cattle population. The median probability of freedom from BVDV in Norway at the end of 2011 was 0.996; (0.995-0.997, credibility interval). The results from the scenario tree model support that the Norwegian cattle population is free from BVDV. The highest estimate of the annual sensitivity for the beef suckling SSCs originated from the surveillance at the slaughterhouses in 2011. The change to sampling at the slaughterhouse level further increased the sensitivity of the surveillance.

Differential expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines during experimental infection with low or high virulence bovine viral diarrhea virus in beef calves.

The objective was to compare the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-12, IL-15) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-ß) cytokines, after experimental infection with low or high virulence noncytopathic (ncp) bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Thirty BVDV-naïve, beef calves were intranasally inoculated with low (LV; n=10, SD-1) or high (HV; n=10, 1373) virulence ncp BVDV or with BVDV-free cell culture medium (Control, n=10). Calves were euthanized on day 5 post-inoculation, and tracheo-bronchial lymph node and spleen samples were collected for mRNA expression through quantitative-RT-PCR. mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-2, IFN-γ) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4 and IL-10) cytokines were up-regulated in tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes of HV, but not in LV, compared to the control group (P<0.05). IL-12 mRNA level was up-regulated in tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes of both LV and HV groups (P ≤ 0.05). A significant up-regulation of IL-15 mRNA was observed in tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes for LV calves (P<0.002), but not for HV calves. Experimental inoculation with BVDV-2 1373 stimulated significant mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, inoculation with BVDV-1a SD-1 only resulted in up-regulation of IL-12 and IL-15 mRNA, which is associated with activation of macrophages and NK cells during innate immune response.

Distribution of lymphoid depletion and viral antigen in alpacas experimentally infected with Bovine viral diarrhea virus 1.

It was hypothesized that acute postnatal Bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV-1) infection leads to leukopenia and lymphoid depletion of gut-associated lymphoid tissues similar to acute disease in calves. The objectives of the current study were to characterize the pathologic effects, viremia, viral shedding, and viral antigen deposition in 6-24-month-old, acutely infected alpacas following experimental infection with noncytopathic BVDV-1 subgenotype 1b (BVDV C0-6). The BVDV-1 isolate was obtained from a cria with naturally occurring persistent infection. Lymphocytopenia occurred 3-7 days postinfection, with a 50% reduction in peripheral lymphocytes in infected alpacas. Depletion of B-cell populations in gut-associated lymphoid tissues was evident microscopically. Populations of T cells in parafollicular zones and in nodular aggregates along the superficial submucosa remained intact. The BVDV antigen was deposited most consistently in submucosal gastrointestinal aggregated lymphoid tissues of ileum, proximal colon, and stomach compartment three. Viral antigen was more variably evident in other lymphoid tissues. Antigen distribution correlated well with histologic lesions in gastrointestinal aggregated lymphoid tissues, confirming the role of virus in lymphoid depletion. Nasal shedding was detected in all challenged alpacas on day 6 and in 4 out of 12 challenged alpacas on day 9. Viremia was present as early as day 3, and present in all challenged alpacas on days 5, 6, 7, and 9 postchallenge. Lymphocytopenia and depletion of gastrointestinal aggregated lymphoid tissues associated with acute BVDV-1 infection likely results in immune compromise and is expected to exacerbate concurrent infections even though uncomplicated BVDV-1 infection was clinically unapparent.

Predictive markers of safety and immunogenicity of adjuvanted vaccines.

Vaccination represents one of the greatest public health triumphs; in part due to the effect of adjuvants that have been included in vaccine preparations to boost the immune responses through different mechanisms. Although a variety of novel adjuvants have been under development, only a limited number have been approved by regulatory authorities for human vaccines. This report reflects the conclusions of a group of scientists from academia, regulatory agencies and industry who attended a conference on the current state of the art in the adjuvant field. Held at the U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention (USP) in Rockville, Maryland, USA, from 18 to 19 April 2013 and organized by the International Association for Biologicals (IABS), the conference focused particularly on the future development of effective adjuvants and adjuvanted vaccines and on overcoming major hurdles, such as safety and immunogenicity assessment, as well as regulatory scrutiny. More information on the conference output can be found on the IABS website, http://www.iabs.org/.

Presencia del virus de la diarrea viral bovina y su asociación con otros cuadros patológicos en ganado en corral de engorda / Presence of bovine virus diarrhea in association with other pathologies in feedlot cattle

Bovine feedlots are intensive production systems of significant importance in Mexico. The present study describes the presence of bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) causing subacute to chronic lesions in feedlot cattle, associated with other pathologies. Animals included in this study were discarded after they received therapy several times due to chronic pneumonia, or anaplamosis. Bovine virus diarrhea antigen was identified by immunohistochemistry in small intestine and myocardium in six cases of chronic suppurative bronchopneumonia with extensive areas of casseous necrotic bronchiectasis, previously diagnosed as Mycoplasma bovis pneumonias (retrospective group, n = 6). Furthermore, based on characteristic histopathologic lesions other nine cases were included (prospective group, n = 9). Bovine virus diarrhea antigen was recognized in two animals with pneumonic lesions, including a case with fibrinous bronchopneumonia as well as suggestive lesions of infectious bovine rinotracheitis (1/9), and another one with suppurative bronchopneumonia and myocarditis suggestive of Histophilus somni (1/9). In addition, one positive case was associated to anaplasmosis (1/9). Other two positive cases showed a conspicuous fibrinous peritonitis (2/9). The rest of the animals in this group resulted negative (4/9). Histopathological characteristics of the lesions and their association with the antigen in situ confirm the presence of BVD. This presentation is compatible with the acute infection syndrome. This is the first report of BVD infection and concomitant pathologies in feedlot cattle in Mexico.

El ganado en corral de engorda es un sistema de producción intensivo de gran importancia en México. En este trabajo se describe la infección por diarrea viral bovina (DVB), ocasionado por lesiones subagudas y crónicas en bovinos en corral de engorda, y su asociación con otras patologías. Los animales de este estudio fueron considerados de rechazo después de ser tratados en diferentes ocasiones por enfermedad respiratoria, o bien anaplasmosis. El antígeno de DVB fue identificado por inmunohistoquímica (IHQ) en intestino delgado y miocardio en seis casos de bronconeumonía supurativa crónica con extensas áreas de bronquiectasia con necrosis caseosa, los cuales habían sido previamente diagnosticados como neumonías por Mycoplasma bovis (grupo retrospectivo, n = 6). Además, se incluyeron otros nueve casos con base en las características histopatológicas de las lesiones (grupo prospectivo, n = 9). El antígeno de DVB se reconoció en dos animales con lesiones neumónicas, uno de ellos con bronconeumonía fibrinosa, incluyendo además lesiones probables de rinotraqueítis infecciosa bovina (1/9), y el otro con bronconeumonía supurativa y también miocarditis probable por Histophilus somni (1/9). Adicionalmente, un caso positivo estuvo asociado a anaplasmosis (1/9). Otros dos casos positivos presentaron una distintiva peritonitis fibrinosa (2/9). El resto de los animales de este grupo resultaron negativos a DVB (4/9). Las características histopatológicas de las lesiones y su asociación con el antígeno in situ, confirman la presencia de DVB. Esta presentación es compatible con el síndrome denominado infección aguda. Este es el primer informe de infección por DVB y otras patologías concomitantes en ganado de engorda en México.

Detection of seven viruses and Mycoplasma in fetal bovine serum by real time PCR / Detección de siete virus y de Mycoplasma en suero fetal bovino por PCR en tiempo real / Detecção de sete vírus e de Mycoplasma em soro fetal bovino por PCR em tempo real

Objective: real time PCR analysis for the detection of seven bovine pathogenic viruses: Bovine Adenovirus (BAdV), Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Types 1 and 2 (BVDV-1 and BVDV-2), Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV), Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), Bovine Parainfluenza Virus 3 (BPIV-3), Bovine Herpes Virus-1 (BoHV-1), and Mycoplasma was conducted using fetal bovine serum (FBS, MICROGEN®) obtained in Colombia, aiming to include it as part of the serum quality control. Methods: bovine derived MDBK and human derived HEp-2 cell lines were cultured with the test serum for 21 days, collecting supernatant and cellular samples every 7-days. Once DNA and RNA were extracted, the later was converted into cDNA and both samples were subjected to real time PCR using specific primers and Resolight® (DNA-binding fluorescent dye). Standard curves were generated using serial dilutions of cloned specific viral sequences. Accurate amplification and high efficiency was demonstrated in these reactions. Results: realtime PCR amplification did not show a persistent increase of viral counts in cultures during the 21-day follow-up. However, for vesicular stomatitis virus, a transient increase was observed at 7 and 14 days in both cell lines, but considered as not conclusive for viral presence. Conclusions: real time PCR analysis showed to be a suitable method for viral detection in fetal bovine serum samples and through this method no consistent viral or mycoplasma presence was detected in the MICROGEN® fetal bovine serum.

Objetivos: se empleó el método de PCR en tiempo real para detectar los virus patógenos bovinos: Adenovirus bovino (BAdV), virus de la diarrea Viral Bovina tipos 1 y 2 (BVDV-1 y BVDV-2), Virus Respiratorio Sincitial Bovino (BRSV), Virus de la Estomatitis Vesicular (VSV), Virus de la Parainfluenza Bovina tipo 3 (BPIV-3), Herpesvirus Bovino-1 (BoHV-1) y Mycoplasma, en suero fetal bovino (FBS, MICROGEN ®)obtenido en Colombia, con el objetivo de incluir estos análisis en el control de calidad del FBS. Metodos: las líneas celulares MDBK de origen bovino y HEp-2 de origen humano se cultivaron con el FBS MICROGEN® por 21 días, tomando muestras de cultivos y sobrenadantes cada 7 días. Una ves extraido el DNA y RNA, a partir de este último se sintetizó cDNA, y en los dos tipos de muestras se analizó la presencia de los agentes patógenos mencionados por PCR en tiempo real empleando iniciadores específicos para cada uno y Resolight® (colorante fluorescente de unión a DNA). Se generaron curvas estándar con diluciones seriadas de secuencias virales específicas clonadas en plásmidos, que mostraron amplificación específica y altas eficiencias. Resultados: el análisis de los cultivos mantenidos con el FBS en estudio no mostró aumento del número de copias virales detectadas a lo largo del periodo de 21 días de seguimiento, excepto para el virus de la estomatitis vesicular, que mostró un incremento transitorio en los sobrenadantes de los cultivos de las dos líneas celulares a los 7 y 14 días de cultivo, que no se consideró concluyente para la presencia del virus. Conclusiones: el método de PCR en tiempo real mostró utilidad para la detección de virus patógenos y mycoplasma en FBS, y mediante este método no se obtuvieron resultados que permitan concluir que los patógenos virales o los mycoplasmas están presentes en los cultivos mantenidos con el suero fetal bovino MICROGEN®.

Objetivo: Foi utilizado o método de PCR em tempo real para detectar os vírus patogénicos bovinos: Adenovírus Bovino (BAdV), Vírus da Diarreia Viral (BVDV-1 e BVDV-2), Vírus Respiratório Sincicial Bovino (BRSV ), Vírus da Estomatite Vesicular (VSV), Vírus da Parainfluenza Bovina tipo 3 (BPIV- 3), Herpesvírus Bovino-1 (BoHV-1) e Mycoplasma, em soro fetal bovino (FBS, Microgen®) obtido na Colômbia, de modo a incluir esta análise no controle de qualidade FBS. Métodos: as linhas celulares de MDBK de origem bovina e HEp-2 de origem humana foram cultivadas com FBS Microgen® durante 21 dias, tomando amostras de cultura e sobrenadantes cada 7 dias. Uma vez retirado o DNA e RNA, foi sintetizado o cDNA a partir do RNA. Nos dois tipos de amostras foram analisadas para determinar a presença de patógenos mencionados por PCR em tempo real usando primers específicos para cada um e Resolight®(corante fluorescente de união à DNA). As curvas padrão foram geradas com diluições em série de sequências virais específicas, clonadas em Resultados: plasmídeos, que mostram amplificação específica e altas eficiências. a análise das culturas mantidas em FBS em estudo, não mostraram aumento no número de cópias virais detectadas ao longo do período de 21 dias de seguimento, exceto para o vírus da estomatite vesicular, que mostrou um aumento transitório nos sobrenadantes das culturas de duas linhas celulares aos 7 e 14 dias de cultura, que não foi considerado conclusivo para a presença do vírus. Conclusões: O método de PCR em tempo real foi útil para a detecção de vírus patogênicos e mycoplasma em FBS, e por este método foram obtidos resultados que demonstram que patógenos virais ou mycoplasmas estão presentes nas culturas mantidas com soro fetal bovino Microgen®.