Glutamine supplementation accelerates functional recovery of EDL muscles after injury by modulating the expression of S100 calcium-binding proteins.

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of glutamine supplementation on the expression of HSP70 and the calcium-binding proteins from the S100 superfamily in the recovering extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle after injury. Two-month-old Wistar rats were subjected to cryolesion of the EDL muscle and then randomly divided into two groups (with or without glutamine supplementation). Starting immediately after the injury, the supplemented group received daily doses of glutamine (1 g/kg/day, via gavage) for 3 and 10 days orally. Then, muscles were subjected to histological, molecular, and functional analysis. Glutamine supplementation induced an increase in myofiber size of regenerating EDL muscles and prevented the decline in maximum tetanic strength of these muscles evaluated 10 days after injury. An accelerated upregulation of myogenin mRNA levels was detected in glutamine-supplemented injured muscles on day 3 post-cryolesion. The HSP70 expression increased only in the injured group supplemented with glutamine for 3 days. The increase in mRNA levels of NF-κB, the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and TNF-α, and the calcium-binding proteins S100A8 and S100A9 on day 3 post-cryolesion in EDL muscles was attenuated by glutamine supplementation. In contrast, the decrease in S100A1 mRNA levels in the 3-day-injured EDL muscles was minimized by glutamine supplementation. Overall, our results suggest that glutamine supplementation accelerates the recovery of myofiber size and contractile function after injury by modulating the expression of myogenin, HSP70, NF-κB, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and S100 calcium-binding proteins.

S100 proteins and their implication in the thalamus: an integrative review / Las proteínas S100 y su implicación en el tálamo: una revisión integradora

SUMMARY: S100 proteins belong group of calcium-binding proteins and are present in physiological intracellular and extracellular regulatory activities, such as cell differentiation, and act in inflammatory and neoplastic pathological processes. Recently, its expressions in the nervous system have been extensively studied, seeking to elucidate its action at the level of the thalamus: A structure of the central nervous system that is part of important circuits, such as somatosensory, behavioral, memory and cognitive, as well as being responsible for the transmission and regulation of information to the cerebral cortex. This article is an integrative review of scientific literature, which analyzed 12 studies present in Pubmed. The analysis showed that the relationship of S100 proteins and the thalamus has been described in neoplastic processes, mental disorders, hypoxia, trauma, stress, infection, Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. In summary, it is possible to conclude that this protein family is relevant as a marker in processes of thalamic injury, requiring further studies to better understand its clinical, preclinical meanings and its prognostic value.

Las proteínas S100 pertenecen al grupo de proteínas fijadoras de calcio y están presentes en actividades reguladoras fisiológicas intracelulares y extracelulares, como la diferenciación celular, y actúan en procesos patológicos inflamatorios y neoplásicos. Recientemente, sus expresiones en el sistema nervioso han sido ampliamente estudiadas, buscando dilucidar su acción a nivel del tálamo: una estructura del sistema nervioso central que forma parte de importantes circuitos, como el somatosensorial, conductual, de memoria y cognitivo, así como además de ser responsable de la transmisión y regulación de la información a la corteza cerebral. Este artículo es una revisión integradora de la literatura científica, que analizó 12 estudios presentes en Pubmed. El análisis mostró que la relación de las proteínas S100 y el tálamo ha sido descrita en procesos neoplásicos, trastornos mentales, hipoxia, trauma, estrés, infección, enfermedad de Parkinson y epilepsia. En resumen, es posible concluir que esta familia de proteínas es relevante como marcador en procesos de lesión talámica, requiriendo más estudios para comprender mejor su significado clínico, preclínico y su valor pronóstico.

Why antidiabetic drugs are potentially neuroprotective during the Sars-CoV-2 pandemic: The focus on astroglial UPR and calcium-binding proteins.

We are living in a terrifying pandemic caused by Sars-CoV-2, in which patients with diabetes mellitus have, from the beginning, been identified as having a high risk of hospitalization and mortality. This viral disease is not limited to the respiratory system, but also affects, among other organs, the central nervous system. Furthermore, we already know that individuals with diabetes mellitus exhibit signs of astrocyte dysfunction and are more likely to develop cognitive deficits and even dementia. It is now being realized that COVID-19 incurs long-term effects and that those infected can develop several neurological and psychiatric manifestations. As this virus seriously compromises cell metabolism by triggering several mechanisms leading to the unfolded protein response (UPR), which involves endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ depletion, we review here the basis involved in this response that are intimately associated with the development of neurodegenerative diseases. The discussion aims to highlight two aspects-the role of calcium-binding proteins and the role of astrocytes, glial cells that integrate energy metabolism with neurotransmission and with neuroinflammation. Among the proteins discussed are calpain, calcineurin, and sorcin. These proteins are emphasized as markers of the UPR and are potential therapeutic targets. Finally, we discuss the role of drugs widely prescribed to patients with diabetes mellitus, such as statins, metformin, and calcium channel blockers. The review assesses potential neuroprotection mechanisms, focusing on the UPR and the restoration of reticular Ca2+ homeostasis, based on both clinical and experimental data.

Calcium, Ca2+-ATPase, Calmodulin, and Calbindin D-28KD Localization in Testis of Leptodactylus chaquensis (Anura: Leptodactylidae).

The intracellular localization of Ca2+, Ca2+-ATPase, Calmodulin, and Calbindin D-28KD have been studied in testes of the toad Leptodactylus chaquensis, using ultracytochemical and immunohistochemical techniques. The Ca2+ presences in the nucleus and into the mitochondria of the germ cells, together with the activity of Ca2+-ATPase detected in the nuclear envelope and mitochondrial crests, suggest the participation of this transporter in the storage of Ca2+. In Sertoli cells, Ca2+ deposits were also found in vesicles and lamellar bodies. Calmodulin and Calbindin D-28KD were revealed in the cytoplasm of both cell types. At the spermatozoon level, the cation deposits were located in the subacrosomal space and in the acrosomal vesicle. Ca2+-ATPase activity was observed in the acrosomal and plasma membranes of the gamete that suggests the existence of a transport system responsible for maintaining low cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels. The activity of Ca2+-ATPase and the location of Ca2+ deposits in gamete tail would be related to flagellar movement. The colocalization of Ca2+ deposits and their binding proteins in efferent duct cells would probably be associated with secretory activity. Considering that intracellular Ca2+ is present in different gonadal cells, this work would provide a better understanding of the cation importance in the testicular functions of this species.

Aging Alters Daily and Regional Calretinin Neuronal Expression in the Rat Non-image Forming Visual Thalamus.

Aging affects the overall physiology, including the image-forming and non-image forming visual systems. Among the components of the latter, the thalamic retinorecipient inter-geniculate leaflet (IGL) and ventral lateral geniculate (vLGN) nucleus conveys light information to subcortical regions, adjusting visuomotor, and circadian functions. It is noteworthy that several visual related cells, such as neuronal subpopulations in the IGL and vLGN are neurochemically characterized by the presence of calcium binding proteins. Calretinin (CR), a representative of such proteins, denotes region-specificity in a temporal manner by variable day-night expression. In parallel, age-related brain dysfunction and neurodegeneration are associated with abnormal intracellular concentrations of calcium. Here, we investigated whether daily changes in the number of CR neurons are a feature of the aged IGL and vLGN in rats. To this end, we perfused rats, ranging from 3 to 24 months of age, within distinct phases of the day, namely zeitgeber times (ZTs). Then, we evaluated CR immunolabeling through design-based stereological cell estimation. We observed distinct daily rhythms of CR expression in the IGL and in both the retinorecipient (vLGNe) and non-retinorecipient (vLGNi) portions of the vLGN. In the ZT 6, the middle of the light phase, the CR cells are reduced with aging in the IGL and vLGNe. In the ZT 12, the transition between light to dark, an age-related CR loss was found in all nuclei. While CR expression predominates in specific spatial domains of vLGN, age-related changes appear not to be restricted at particular portions. No alterations were found in the dark/light transition or in the middle of the dark phase, ZTs 0, and 18, respectively. These results are relevant in the understanding of how aging shifts the phenotype of visual related cells at topographically organized channels of visuomotor and circadian processing.

La inmunorreactividad a calbindina en células de purkinje del cerebelo de ratones no es afectada por la infección con virus de la rabia / Immunoreactivity to calbindin in purkinje cells in the cerebellum of mice is not affected by rabies virus infection

Introducción: La calbindina (CB) es una proteína reguladora del calcio intracelular y la célula de Purkinje del cerebelo es la neurona con más alta concentración de CB. Se ha demostrado pérdida de inmunorreactividad a CB en diferentes áreas del sistema nervioso en ratones inoculados con virus de la rabia, pero faltaba estudiar este fenómeno en el cerebelo. Objetivo: Determinar el efecto de la inoculación con virus de la rabia sobre la expresión de CB en células de Purkinje del cerebelo de ratones. Metodología: Se inocularon ratones con el virus por vía intramuscular. Se sacrificaron los animales cuando alcanzaron la fase avanzada de la enfermedad y se fijaron mediante perfusión intracardiaca con paraformaldehído al 4%. Se les extrajo el cerebelo y se hicieron cortes sagitales de 50 micrómetros de espesor en un vibrátomo. Estos se procesaron mediante inmunohistoquímica para revelar la presencia de CB o de antígenos del virus de la rabia. El mismo procedimiento se realizó con animales no infectados (controles). Resultados: Las células de Purkinje fueron masivamente infectadas con el virus de la rabia. En las imágenes panorámicas observadas en el microscopio se comprobó que sólo estas células fueron inmunorreactivas a CB. No se hallaron diferencias significativas en la inmunorreactividad a CB, evaluada por densitometría óptica, entre los animales infectados y los controles. Conclusión: La expresión de CB en las células de Purkinje del cerebelo parece no afectarse por la infección con rabia, a diferencia de lo que se ha demostrado en otras áreas del sistema nervioso del ratón.

Introduction: Calbindin (CB) is a regulatory protein of intracellular calcium, and the cerebellar Purkinje cell is the neuron with the highest concentration of CB. Loss of CB immunoreactivity has been demonstrated in different areas of the nervous system in rabies virus-infected mice, but the study of this phenomena in the cerebellum lacked. Objective: To determine the effect of inoculation with rabies virus on the expression of CB in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum of mice. Methodology: Mice were intramuscularly inoculated with rabies virus. Animals were sacrificed when they reached an advanced stage of the disease and then they were fixed by intracardiac perfusion with 4% paraformaldehyde. Cerebellums were extracted and sagittal sections 50 microns thick were obtained in a vibratome. These were processed by immunohistochemistry to reveal the presence of CB protein or rabies virus antigens. The same procedure was performed with uninfected animals (controls). Results: Purkinje cells were massively infected with rabies virus. In the microscopic panoramic images observed was found that only these cells are immunoreactive to CB. No significant difference in CB immunoreactivity evaluated by optical densitometry was found between infected animals and controls. Conclusion: The expression of CB in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum appears not to be affected by infection with rabies unlike what has been shown in other areas of the mouse nervous system.

Temporal changes in calcium-binding proteins in the medial geniculate nucleus of the monkey Sapajus apella.

The subdivisions of the medial geniculate complex can be distinguished based on the immunostaining of calcium-binding proteins and by the properties of the neurons within each subdivision. The possibility of changes in neurochemistry in this and other central auditory areas are important aspects to understand the basis that contributing to functional variations determined by environmental cycles or the animal's cycles of activity and rest. This study investigated, for the first time, day/night differences in the amounts of parvalbumin-, calretinin- and calbindin-containing neurons in the thalamic auditory center of a non-human primate, Sapajus apella. The immunoreactivity of the PV-IR, CB-IR and CR-IR neurons demonstrated different distribution patterns among the subdivisions of the medial geniculate. Moreover, a high number of CB- and CR-IR neurons were found during day, whereas PV-IR was predominant at night. We conclude that in addition to the chemical heterogeneity of the medial geniculate nucleus with respect to the expression of calcium-binding proteins, expression also varied relative to periods of light and darkness, which may be important for a possible functional adaptation of central auditory areas to environmental changes and thus ensure the survival and development of several related functions.

Human prefrontal layer II interneurons in areas 46, 10 and 24.

BACKGROUND: Prefrontal cortex (PFC) represents the highest level of integration and control of psychic and behavioral states. Several dysfunctions such as autism, hyperactivity disorders, depression, and schizophrenia have been related with alterations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Among the cortical layers of the PFC, layer II shows a particular vertical pattern of organization, the highest cell density and the biggest non-pyramidal/pyramidal neuronal ratio. We currently characterized the layer II cytoarchitecture in human areas 10, 24, and 46. OBJECTIVE: We focused particularly on the inhibitory neurons taking into account that these cells are involved in sustained firing (SF) after stimuli disappearance. METHODS: Postmortem samples from five subjects who died by causes different to central nervous system diseases were studied. Immunohistochemistry for the neuronal markers, NeuN, parvalbumin (PV), calbindin (CB), and calretinin (CR) were used. NeuN targeted the total neuronal population while the rest of the markers specifically the interneurons. RESULTS: Cell density and soma size were statically different between areas 10, 46, 24 when using NeuN. Layer II of area 46 showed the highest cell density. Regarding interneurons, PV+-cells of area 46 showed the highest density and size, in accordance to the proposal of a dual origin of the cerebral cortex. Interhemispheric asymmetries were not identified between homologue areas. CONCLUSION: First, our findings suggest that layer II of area 46 exhibits the most powerful inhibitory system compared to the other prefrontal areas analyzed. This feature is not only characteristic of the PFC but also supports a particular role of layer II of area 46 in SF. Additionally, known functional asymmetries between hemispheres might not be supported by morphological asymmetries.

ANTECEDENTES: La corteza prefrontal (CPF) representa el nivel más alto de integración y control de funciones psíquicas y comportamentales. Varias patologías como autismo, desórdenes de hiperactividad, depresión y esquizofrenia se han relacionado con alteraciones de la CPF. La lámina II de las áreas que constituyen la CPF posee un patrón de organización vertical, una alta densidad celular y la mayor proporción de neuronas no-piramidal/piramidal. Sin embargo, la distribución del componente inhibitorio en estas regiones no se ha descrito. En el presente estudio nos propusimos caracterizar la lámina II de las áreas 10, 24 y 46 del humano, particularmente su componente inhibitorio teniendo en mente su participación en procesos de actividad sostenida relevantes cuando desaparece el estímulo. MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron muestras de cinco sujetos que fallecieron por causas diferentes a enfermedades del sistema nervioso. Se tomaron secciones de las áreas 10,24 y 46 de Brodmann y se procesaron con los anticuerpos contra NeuN para determinar la población neuronal total y contra parvalminina (PV), calbindina (CB) y calretinina )CR) para analizar la población de interneuronas. RESULTADOS: Los resultados no mostraron diferencias interhemisféricas entre las áreas. Sin embargo, las tres áreas seleccionadas son significativamente diferentes entre sí en todos los parámetros analizados. El área 46 posee la mayor densidad y tamaño de interneuronas positivas para PV. CONCLUSIONES: La ausencia de asimetrías morfológicas no permite explicar las asimetrías funcionales. La lámina II del área 46 posee el sistema inhibitorio más poderoso. Teniendo en cuenta la arquitectura modular de las capas supragranulares, este sistema inhibitorio subyace a la actividad sostenida, eje fundamental de la memoria operativa.

Human prefrontal layer II interneurons in areas 46, 10 and 24 / Interneuronas de la lámina II en las áreas prefrontales 46, 10 y 24 del humano

Background: Prefrontal cortex (PFC) represents the highest level of integration and control of psychic and behavioral states. Several dysfunctions such as autism, hyperactivity disorders, depression, and schizophrenia have been related with alterations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Among the cortical layers of the PFC, layer II shows a particular vertical pattern of organization, the highest cell density and the biggest non-pyramidal/pyramidal neuronal ratio. We currently characterized the layer II cytoarchitecture in human areas 10, 24, and 46. Objective: We focused particularly on the inhibitory neurons taking into account that these cells are involved in sustained firing (SF) after stimuli disappearance. Methods: Postmortem samples from five subjects who died by causes different to central nervous system diseases were studied. Immunohistochemistry for the neuronal markers, NeuN, parvalbumin (PV), calbindin (CB), and calretinin (CR) were used. NeuN targeted the total neuronal population while the rest of the markers specifically the interneurons. Results: Cell density and soma size were statically different between areas 10, 46, 24 when using NeuN. Layer II of area 46 showed the highest cell density. Regarding interneurons, PV+-cells of area 46 showed the highest density and size, in accordance to the proposal of a dual origin of the cerebral cortex. Interhemispheric asymmetries were not identified between homologue areas. Conclusion: First, our findings suggest that layer II of area 46 exhibits the most powerful inhibitory system compared to the other prefrontal areas analyzed. This feature is not only characteristic of the PFC but also supports a particular role of layer II of area 46 in SF. Additionally, known functional asymmetries between hemispheres might not be supported by morphological asymmetries.

Antecedentes: La corteza prefrontal (CPF) representa el nivel más alto de integración y control de funciones psíquicas y comportamentales. Varias patologías como autismo, desórdenes de hiperactividad, depresión y esquizofrenia se han relacionado con alteraciones de la CPF. La lámina II de las áreas que constituyen la CPF posee un patrón de organización vertical, una alta densidad celular y la mayor proporción de neuronas no-piramidal/piramidal. Sin embargo, la distribución del componente inhibitorio en estas regiones no se ha descrito. Objetivo: En el presente estudio nos propusimos caracterizar la lámina II de las áreas 10, 24 y 46 del humano, particularmente su componente inhibitorio teniendo en mente su participación en procesos de actividad sostenida relevantes cuando desaparece el estímulo. Métodos: Se utilizaron muestras de cinco sujetos que fallecieron por causas diferentes a enfermedades del sistema nervioso. Se tomaron secciones de las áreas 10, 24 y 46 de Brodmann y se procesaron con los anticuerpos contra NeuN para determinar la población neuronal total y contra Parvalbumina (PV), Calbindina (CB) y Calretinina (CR) para analizar la población de interneuronas. Resultados: Los resultados no mostraron diferencias interhemisféricas entre las áreas. Sin embargo, las tres áreas seleccionadas son significativamente diferentes entre sí en todos los parámetros analizados. El área 46 posee la mayor densidad y tamaño de interneuronas positivas para PV. Conclusiones: La ausencia de asimetrías morfológicas no permite explicar las asimetrías funcionales. La lámina II del área 46 posee el sistema inhibitorio más poderoso. Teniendo en cuenta la arquitectura modular de las capas supragranulares, este sistema inhibitorio subyace a la actividad sostenida, eje fundamental de la memoria operativa.

Efecto de la degradación post mórtem sobre la detección inmunohistoquímica de antígenos en el cerebro de ratón / Effect of postmortem degradation on the immunohistochemical detection of antigens in the mouse brain

Introducción. Si bien lo ideal es llevar a cabo la preservación de los tejidos en el menor tiempo posible luego de la muerte de un animal objeto de un estudio neurohistoquímico, con frecuencia es inevitable trabajar con tejido nervioso obtenido varias horas post mórtem. Objetivo, Estudiar el efecto de la degradación post mórtem sobre la inmunorreacción de di-ferentes antígenos en el cerebro de ratón. Métodos. Se inocularon ratones con virus de la rabia y se extrajeron los cerebros luego de fijar los animales con paraformaldehído me-diante perfusión. En otro grupo de animales la extracción de los encéfalos se hizo para fi-jarlos por inmersión con el mismo fijador y en diferentes horas post mórtem. En un vibráto-mo se obtuvieron cortes coronales de los ce-rebros, y estos se procesaron para inmunode-tección de rabia y de otros cuatro antígenos. Resultados. Cuatro de los antígenos evalua-dos, calbindina, parvoalbúmina, glutamato y ácido gamma-aminobutírico (GABA), presen-taron pérdida de inmunorreacción cuando el tejido cerebral se había tratado previamente mediante fijación por inmersión. Este efecto fue más acentuado cuando aumentó el tiempo post mórtem antes de la fijación. Por el con-trario, la inmunorreacción al virus de la rabia se incrementó cuando transcurrieron más de seis horas post mórtem antes de la fijación. Conclusiones. La fijación por perfusión es ideal para estudios de inmunohistoquími-ca de diferentes antígenos. La degradación tisular post mórtem generalmente provoca disminución de la inmunorreacción. No obs-tante, los antígenos del virus de la rabia in-crementan su inmunorreacción a medida que transcurre el tiempo post mórtem antes de la fijación.

Introduction: It is advisable to carry out the preservation of tissues in the shortest time after the death of an animal subject of neu-rochemical study but it is often unavoidable to work with nervous tissue obtained several hours postmortem. Objective: To study the effect of postmor-tem degradation on immunoreactivity of di-fferent antigens in the mouse brain. Methods: Mice were inoculated with rabies virus and the brains were removed after the animals were fixed by perfusion with parafor-maldehyde. In another group of animals the brain extraction was performed and they were fixed by immersion in the same fixative solu-tion at different hours postmortem. Coronal sections of the brains were obtained in a vibra-tome and they were processed for immunode-tection of rabies, and other four antigens. Results: Four of the antigens studied, cal-bindin, parvalbumin, glutamate and GABA, showed loss of immunoreactivity when brain tissue was pretreated by immersion fixa-tion. This effect was more noticeable when postmortem time increase before the fixing. Conversely immunoreactivity to rabies virus was increased over six hours postmortem before fixation. Conclusions: Fixation by perfusion is ideal for immunohistochemical studies of diffe-rent antigens. Postmortem tissue degrada-tion usually causes decreased immunoreac-tivity. However, rabies virus antigens show increased immunoreactivity when elapses more postmortem time before fixation.

Evaluation of early abnormalities of the sensory retina in a hypercholesterolemia experimental model: an immunohistochemical study / Avaliação das anormalidades precoces da retina sensorial em modelo experimental de hipercolesterolemia: estudo imunohistoquímico

PURPOSE: The aim of this study is to demonstrate the early changes of the sensory retina induced by hypercholesterolemia in an experimental model. METHODS: New Zealand rabbits were divided into two groups: CG (Control Group) was fed a normal diet for 6 weeks. G1 was initially fed a 1 percent cholesterol diet for two weeks and from the 14th day on a 0.5 percent cholesterol diet until the 42nd day. The eyes underwent an immunohistochemical analysis with monoclonal antibodies anti-calretinin and anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). RESULTS: G1 cells and cell elements presented significant immunoreactivity to anti-calretinin. No immunoreactivity to anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein was observed in both groups. CONCLUSION: This study has shown that a hypercholesterolemic diet may induce early changes in the sensory retina in rabbits. The anti-calretinin monoclonal antibody was able to reveal calcium accumulation inside the nerve cells.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo é demonstrar experimentalmente as alterações precoces da retina sensorial induzidas pela hipercolesterolemia. MÉTODOS: Coelhos New Zealand foram organizados em dois grupos: GC (grupo controle), composto por 6 coelhos (6 olhos), recebeu dieta normal por 6 semanas; G1, composto por 12 coelhos (12 olhos), tratado previamente com ração colesterol a 1 por cento (Sigma-Aldrich) por 2 semanas e a partir do 14º dia com ração colesterol a 0,5 por cento (Sigma-Aldrich). Os olhos foram submetidos à análise imunohistoquímica com os anticorpos monoclonais anticalretinina e anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). RESULTADOS: G1 apresentou maior número de células e elementos celulares imunoreativos a anticalretinina que o GC, com relevância estatística. GFAP foi negativo em ambos os grupos. CONCLUSÃO: Este estudo demonstrou que a dieta hipercolesterolêmica pode induzir alterações precoces na retina sensorial em coelhos. O anticorpo monoclonal anticalretinina foi capaz de revelar o acúmulo de cálcio dentro das células neuronais retiniana.

Evaluación inmunohistoquímica de la expresión de calbindina en el cerebro de ratones en diferentes tiempos después de la inoculación con el virus de la rabia / Immunohistochemical evaluation of calbindin expression in mouse brain at different times after rabies virus inoculation

Introducción: La calbindina (CB) es una proteína reguladora del metabolismo del calcio intracelular. Previamente se demostró que la infección con virus fijo de la rabia induce pérdida de la expresión de CB, en el cerebro de ratones en estado terminal de la enfermedad, a los 7-8 días de post-inoculación (p.i.) intramuscular. Objetivo: Determinar si la pérdida de expresión de CB se presenta también en etapas tempranas de la infección y si es una consecuencia inmediata a la aparición de antígenos virales en el cerebro. Materiales y métodos: Se inocularon ratones con virus fijo de la rabia, por vía intramuscular, en su extremidad posterior izquierda. Diariamente se tomaron entre 4 y 6 animales infectados y sus respectivos controles, se fijaron por perfusión intracardíaca con paraformaldehído, se extrajeron sus cerebros y se obtuvieron cortes coronales en un vibratomo. Estos se sometieron a reacciones inmunohistoquímicas para evaluar la presencia de antígenos virales y la expresión de CB. Esta última fue cuantificada mediante densitometría óptica en un microscopio con anßlisis de imßgenes. Resultados: La inmunorreactividad a la rabia fue positiva en el cerebro a partir del día 3 p.i.; se observó primero en neuronas piramidales de la corteza frontal. La inmunotinción para CB no sufrió ninguna alteración cualitativa ni cuantitativa en la corteza cerebral y el estriado hasta el día 6 p.i. Conclusiones: Estos resultados coinciden con los de otros estudios sobre la rabia en los que se han encontrado alteraciones moleculares, metabólicas o fisiopatológicas en el sistema nervioso sólo en la fase terminal de la enfermedad.

Introduction: The calcium-binding protein calbindin (CB) plays a critical role in intracellular calcium metabolism. In a previous study we demonstrated that the infection with fixed rabies virus caused loss of CB expression in mouse brain during terminal state of the disease, 7-8 days after intramuscular inoculation. Objectives: To determine loss of CB expression also appears in early stages of the infection and if it is a consequence immediate to the appearance of viral antigens in the brain. Materials and methods: Mice were inoculated with fixed rabies virus, by intramuscular route, in the left hind limbs. Daily, to sixth day, 4-6 animals and their respective controls were killed and fixed by intracardiac perfusion with paraformaldehyde and their brains were extracted to obtain coronal sections using a vibratome. Free-floating sections were treated by immunohistochemical procedures to evaluate the presence of rabies viral antigens and the expression of CB. The last one was quantified by optical densitometry in a microscope with a system of image analysis. Results: Rabies immunoreactivity was observed in the brain three days after virus inoculation, beginning in pyramidal neurons of the frontal cortex whereas the immunostaining for CB did not undergo any qualitative nor quantitative changes neither in the cerebral cortex or striatum during the six days post-inoculation. Conclusions: These results agree with other studies in which it has been settled down that the rabies molecular or metabolic effects on the nervous system are well-known only in the final stage of the disease.