Chickpea aquafaba: a systematic review of the different processes for obtaining and their nutritional and technological characteristics.

Aquafaba is the residual water from cooking chickpea in water. It has a high gelling ability, allowing it to create stable gels. However, those functional properties depend on the legume composition, genotype, cooking time, pressure, and temperature. This study aimed to evaluate the different processes for obtaining aquafaba and compare their nutritional composition and technological characteristics using a systematic review. The authors performed the systematic review by performing specific search strategies for Scopus, Web of Science, Pubmed, Lilacs, Google Scholar, and ProQuest. A total of 17 studies were analyzed. Of them, 17.64% (n = 3) used the wastewater from canned chickpeas, 17.64% (n = 3) compared the wastewater of canned chickpeas and dry grains, and 58.82% (n = 10) used dry chickpeas. Studies used different methods to analyze the protein content. The most used (n = 5) was the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The aquafaba presented carbohydrates at 2.03-2.59 g/100ml; protein at 0.0.8-2.8 g/100ml; and fat at 0.07-0.1 g/100ml. In general, preparing aquafaba followed: soaking (8-10 h at 4 °C-1 chickpea: 4 water), pressure cooking (30 min-2 chickpea: 3 water), and refrigerating (24h/4 °C). In general, the results showed the following steps to prepare aquafaba: soaking for 8-10 h at 4 °C at the proportion of 1:4 (chickpea:water), pressure cooking for 30 min in the proportion of 2:3 (chickpea: water), and refrigerating 24 h/4 °C. These procedures in a homemade aquafaba presented the best results, considering foam development and higher stability. The aquafaba from canned chickpeas has a higher foam-ability and lower emulsion properties than homemade cooking aquafaba. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05920-y.

A new active packaging system based on chickpea-based edible coatings added with microcapsules of Cosmos sulphureus Cav. flower extract.

BACKGROUND: The Cosmos sulphureus Cav. plant is studied for its high polyphenolic content with antioxidant properties. Its flowers, rich in phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins, hold promise as antioxidants in food preservation. The inclusion of these compounds in chickpea-based coatings with a previously studied preservative effect would be an excellent option as a food preservation method and microencapsulation addresses challenges like dispersion and degradation of polyphenols in the coating. The objective of this research was to evaluate the in vitro antioxidant activity of Cosmos sulphureus leaves, seed, and flower extracts and explore the protective effects of chickpea-based coatings containing microcapsules of flower polyphenolic extract on the chemical quality of stored roasted sunflower seeds during storage. RESULTS: The ethanolic leaf extract exhibited the highest antiradical activity, followed by the aqueous flower extract. After a storage period of 15 days, at 40 °C, the chickpea-based coatings effectively delayed lipid oxidation in the roasted sunflowers seeds, and the inclusion of polyphenolic microcapsules with 0.01% extract (SMC 0.01%) in the coating significantly improved the protective effect. By day 15 of storage, SMC 0.01% showed comparable peroxide value, conjugated dienes, and linoleic acid content to samples containing the synthetic antioxidant BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene). Samples that only contained chickpea-based coating and coating with polyphenolic microcapsules with 0.005% extract exhibited significantly greater reduction in fatty acid content compared to the 0.01% SMC treatment. CONCLUSION: The chickpea-based coating with polyphenolic microcapsules demonstrated antioxidant activity akin to synthetic BHT, offering a promising biopackaging solution for lipid-rich foods like roasted sunflower seeds. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Optimized protoplast isolation and transfection with a breakpoint: accelerating Cas9/sgRNA cleavage efficiency validation in monocot and dicot.

The CRISPR-Cas genome editing tools are revolutionizing agriculture and basic biology with their simplicity and precision ability to modify target genomic loci. Software-predicted guide RNAs (gRNAs) often fail to induce efficient cleavage at target loci. Many target loci are inaccessible due to complex chromatin structure. Currently, there is no suitable tool available to predict the architecture of genomic target sites and their accessibility. Hence, significant time and resources are spent on performing editing experiments with inefficient guides. Although in vitro-cleavage assay could provide a rough assessment of gRNA efficiency, it largely excludes the interference of native genomic context. Transient in-vivo testing gives a proper assessment of the cleavage ability of editing reagents in a native genomic context. Here, we developed a modified protocol that offers highly efficient protoplast isolation from rice, Arabidopsis, and chickpea, using a sucrose gradient, transfection using PEG (polyethylene glycol), and validation of single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) cleavage efficiency of CRISPR-Cas9. We have optimized various parameters for PEG-mediated protoplast transfection and achieved high transfection efficiency using our protocol in both monocots and dicots. We introduced plasmid vectors containing Cas9 and sgRNAs targeting genes in rice, Arabidopsis, and chickpea protoplasts. Using dual sgRNAs, our CRISPR-deletion strategy offers straightforward detection of genome editing success by simple agarose gel electrophoresis. Sanger sequencing of PCR products confirmed the editing efficiency of specific sgRNAs. Notably, we demonstrated that isolated protoplasts can be stored for up to 24/48 h with little loss of viability, allowing a pause between isolation and transfection. This high-efficiency protocol for protoplast isolation and transfection enables rapid (less than 7 days) validation of sgRNA cleavage efficiency before proceeding with stable transformation. The isolation and transfection method can also be utilized for rapid validation of editing strategies, evaluating diverse editing reagents, regenerating plants from transfected protoplasts, gene expression studies, protein localization and functional analysis, and other applications. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42994-024-00139-7.

Recombinase Polymerase Amplification assay for detection of the British root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne artiellia.

Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) is an isothermal in vitro nucleic acid amplification technique that has been adopted for simple, robust, rapid, reliable diagnostics of nematodes. In this study, the real-time RPA assay and RPA assay combined with lateral flow dipsticks (LF-RPA) have been developed targeting the ITS rRNA gene of the British root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne artiellia. The assay provided specific and rapid detection of this root-knot nematode species from crude nematode extracts without a DNA extraction step with a sensitivity of 0.125 second-stage juvenile (J2) specimen per a reaction tube for real-time RPA during 11 min and a sensitivity of 0.5 J2 specimens per a reaction tube for LF-RPA during 25 min. The RPA assays were validated with a wide range of non-target root-knot nematodes. The LF-RPA assay has great potential for nematode diagnostics in the laboratory having minimal available equipment.

CaLAP1 and CaLAP2 orchestrate anthocyanin biosynthesis in the seed coat of Cicer arietinum.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Our findings shed light on the regulation of anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in chickpea seed coats. Expression of R2R3-MYB transcription factors CaLAP1 and CaLAP2 enhanced the anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins content in chickpea. The seed coat color is a major economic trait in leguminous crop chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins (PAs) are two classes of flavonoids that mainly contribute to the flower, seed coat and color of Desi chickpea cultivars. Throughout the land plant lineage, the accumulation of anthocyanins and PAs is regulated by MYB and bHLH transcription factors (TFs), which form an MBW (MYB, bHLH, and WD40) complex. Here, we report two R2R3-MYB TFs in chickpea belonging to the anthocyanin-specific subgroup-6, CaLAP1 (Legume Anthocyanin Production 1), and CaLAP2 (Legume Anthocyanin Production 2), which are mainly expressed in the flowers and developmental stages of the seeds. CaLAP1 and CaLAP2 interact with TT8-like CabHLH1 and WD40, forming the MBW complex, and bind to the promoter sequences of anthocyanin- and PA biosynthetic genes CaCHS6, CaDFR2, CaANS, and CaANR, leading to anthocyanins and PA accumulation in the seed coat of chickpea. Moreover, these CaLAPs partially complement the anthocyanin-deficient phenotype in the Arabidopsis thaliana sextuple mutant seedlings. Overexpression of CaLAPs in chickpea resulted in significantly higher expression of anthocyanin and PA biosynthetic genes leading to a darker seed coat color with higher accumulation of anthocyanin and PA. Our findings show that CaLAPs positively modulate anthocyanin and PA content in seed coats, which might influence plant development and resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses.

Chickpea production restored through upscaling crowdsourcing winner varieties and planting date adjustments in the Ada'a district, East Shoa zone, Ethiopia.

Chickpea is an important cash crop for Ada'a farmers as it does for farmers in Ethiopia and elsewhere in the world. Its production, however, has been dwindling due to biotic and abiotic stresses. According to participant farmers from Ada'a district, the production of chickpea in some Kebeles of Ada'a such as Gubasaye has been abandoned because of root rot and foliar diseases such as fusarium wilt. This paper presents the evaluation of upscaled varieties' performance assessed by metric data as well as through beneficiary farmers' self-assessment data. Recognizant to the problem, five varieties of chickpea tested in the Goro district of the Southwest Shoa zone, were introduced as part of the upscaling of crowdsourcing winner crop varieties in Ethiopia. Crowdsourcing is an approach of outsourcing variety evaluation, selection, and dissemination to volunteer crowds of farmers. The introduction of the winner varieties and adjustment of the planting time was found effective in the Ada'a district. Higher grain yield was obtained from the upscaled winner varieties in the range of 2.4-2.53 t/ha, with slight variations over varieties. Habru variety showed slightly higher performance than the others. Survey participant farmers have reported an increase in GY due to growing the winner varieties compared with varieties they used to grow before and gained higher annual income due to higher productivity, market demand of the upscaled varieties, and premium market price with 6-25 Ethiopian birr (ETB) per kilogram of sold grain of these varieties. High productivity is attributed to the genetic potential of the varieties, their response to farm management, and better adaptation to the local growing conditions. Participant farmers perceived that their livelihood has been improving because of the adoption of the upscaled varieties' productivity and market demand. The annual income of participant farmers is estimated to be 2500 to 181,000 ETB for growing the winner varieties. The results indicate that upscaling pre-tested chickpea varieties and delaying their planting time to early September are effective mechanisms for reducing yield loss to fusarium wilt and root rot diseases. It can be inferred that using the crowdsourcing approach for variety evaluation and selection for upscaling is a robust approach to improve the adoption and dissemination of improved agricultural technologies.

Implementation of theoretical non-photochemical quenching (NPQ(T)) to investigate NPQ of chickpea under drought stress with High-throughput Phenotyping.

Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is a protective mechanism for dissipating excess energy generated during photosynthesis in the form of heat. The accelerated relaxation of the NPQ in fluctuating light can lead to an increase in the yield and dry matter productivity of crops. Since the measurement of NPQ is time-consuming and requires specific light conditions, theoretical NPQ (NPQ(T)) was introduced for rapid estimation, which could be suitable for High-throughput Phenotyping. We investigated the potential of NPQ(T) to be used for testing plant genetic resources of chickpea under drought stress with non-invasive High-throughput Phenotyping complemented with yield traits. Besides a high correlation between the hundred-seed-weight and the Estimated Biovolume, significant differences were observed between the two types of chickpea desi and kabuli for Estimated Biovolume and NPQ(T). Desi was able to maintain the Estimated Biovolume significantly better under drought stress. One reason could be the effective dissipation of excess excitation energy in photosystem II, which can be efficiently measured as NPQ(T). Screening of plant genetic resources for photosynthetic performance could take pre-breeding to a higher level and can be implemented in a variety of studies, such as here with drought stress or under fluctuating light in a High-throughput Phenotyping manner using NPQ(T).

Formulation and assessment of chickpea pulao using fenugreek seeds and Indian rennet to improve blood glycemic levels.

Diabetes is becoming a significant health concern in Asia, where the prevalence has reached alarming levels. An important contributing factor is the consumption of high-carbohydrate foods, including rice, bread, etc. These high-carbohydrate foods pose a major risk to public health due to their impact on postprandial hyperglycemia. This research aimed to formulate a chickpea pulao (cooked Indian-Pakistani rice dish) and to evaluate its effects on postprandial blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetic individuals. Antioxidant potential and total phenolic contents of herbs at different concentrations (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9%) were measured through DPPH and Folin Ciocalteu assays. The antidiabetic potential was tested by α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition assays. After sensory evaluation, the best-chosen concentration was used to formulate the chickpea pulao. The study trial was advertised under "DP trial," and 12 participants were recruited. A single-blind randomized cross-over trial was conducted for 3 weeks with a one-week wash-over time in between. Participants' preprandial and postprandial blood glucose levels were recorded for control and intervention recipes. Results indicated that both fenugreek seeds (FS) and Indian rennet (IR) showed good antioxidant and hypoglycemic activity (p = .000) in raw and boiled extracts. For DPPH, the IC50 values of unboiled and boiled combined (FS + IR) extracts were calculated as 7.4% and 8.02%, respectively. Similarly, for α-amylase, the IC50 values of combined IR and FS unboiled and boiled extracts were 6.58% and 6.83%, and for α-glucosidase inhibition assay, the values were measured as 14.98% and 16.24%. The single-blind randomized cross-over trial showed that consuming the intervention recipe significantly reduced postprandial hyperglycemia (p = .000) in type 2 diabetic participants. The intervention recipe decreased hyperglycemia by approximately 15% daily compared to the control recipe. Incorporation of hypoglycemic herbs into dietary patterns can work as an adjunct therapy for diabetes management, especially in populations with a high prevalence of this disease.

Impact of chickpea hummus on postprandial blood glucose, insulin and gut hormones in healthy humans combined with mechanistic studies of food structure, rheology and digestion kinetics.

Slowing the rate of carbohydrate digestion leads to low postprandial glucose and insulin responses, which are associated with reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. There is increasing evidence that food structure plays a crucial role in influencing the bioaccessibility and digestion kinetics of macronutrients. The aims of this study were to compare the effects of two hummus meals, with different degrees of cell wall integrity, on postprandial metabolic responses in relation to the microstructural and rheological characteristics of the meals. A randomised crossover trial in 15 healthy participants was designed to compare the acute effect of 27 g of starch, provided as hummus made from either intact chickpea cells (ICC) or ruptured chickpea cells (RCC), on postprandial metabolic responses. In vitro starch digestibility, microstructural and rheological experiments were also conducted to evaluate differences between the two chickpea hummus meals. Blood insulin and GIP concentrations were significantly lower (P < 0.02, P < 0.03) after the consumption of the ICC meal than the meal containing RCC. In vitro starch digestion for 90 min was slower in ICC than in RCC. Microscopic examination of hummus samples digested in vitro for 90 min revealed more intact chickpea cells in ICC compared to the RCC sample. Rheological experiments showed that fracture for ICC hummus samples occurred at smaller strains compared to RCC samples. However, the storage modulus for ICC was higher than RCC, which may be explained by the presence of intact cells in ICC. Food structure can affect the rate and extent of starch bioaccessibility and digestion and may explain the difference in the time course of metabolic responses between meals. The rheological properties were measured on the two types of meals before ingestion, showing significant differences that may point to different breakdown mechanisms during subsequent digestion. This trial was registered at clinicaltrial.gov as NCT03424187.

Unlocking the nutritional potential of chickpea: strategies for biofortification and enhanced multinutrient quality.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a vital grain legume, offering an excellent balance of protein, carbohydrates, fats, fiber, essential micronutrients, and vitamins that can contribute to addressing the global population's increasing food and nutritional demands. Chickpea protein offers a balanced source of amino acids with high bioavailability. Moreover, due to its balanced nutrients and affordable price, chickpea is an excellent alternative to animal protein, offering a formidable tool for combating hidden hunger and malnutrition, particularly prevalent in low-income countries. This review examines chickpea's nutritional profile, encompassing protein, amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidant properties, and bioactive compounds of significance in health and pharmaceutical domains. Emphasis is placed on incorporating chickpeas into diets for their myriad health benefits and nutritional richness, aimed at enhancing human protein and micronutrient nutrition. We discuss advances in plant breeding and genomics that have facilitated the discovery of diverse genotypes and key genomic variants/regions/quantitative trait loci contributing to enhanced macro- and micronutrient contents and other quality parameters. Furthermore, we explore the potential of innovative breeding tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 in enhancing chickpea's nutritional profile. Envisioning chickpea as a nutritionally smart crop, we endeavor to safeguard food security, combat hunger and malnutrition, and promote dietary diversity within sustainable agrifood systems.

Extraction, Modification, Biofunctionality, and Food Applications of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Protein: An Up-to-Date Review.

Plant-based proteins have gained popularity in the food industry as a good protein source. Among these, chickpea protein has gained significant attention in recent times due to its high yields, high nutritional content, and health benefits. With an abundance of essential amino acids, particularly lysine, and a highly digestible indispensable amino acid score of 76 (DIAAS), chickpea protein is considered a substitute for animal proteins. However, the application of chickpea protein in food products is limited due to its poor functional properties, such as solubility, water-holding capacity, and emulsifying and gelling properties. To overcome these limitations, various modification methods, including physical, biological, chemical, and a combination of these, have been applied to enhance the functional properties of chickpea protein and expand its applications in healthy food products. Therefore, this review aims to comprehensively examine recent advances in Cicer arietinum (chickpea) protein extraction techniques, characterizing its properties, exploring post-modification strategies, and assessing its diverse applications in the food industry. Moreover, we reviewed the nutritional benefits and sustainability implications, along with addressing regulatory considerations. This review intends to provide insights into maximizing the potential of Cicer arietinum protein in diverse applications while ensuring sustainability and compliance with regulations.

Chasmophyte associated stress tolerant bacteria confer drought resilience to chickpea through efficient nutrient mining and modulation of stress response.

In the present study, ten (10) selected bacteria isolated from chasmophytic wild Chenopodium were evaluated for alleviation of drought stress in chickpea. All the bacterial cultures were potential P, K and Zn solubilizer. About 50% of the bacteria could produce Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase. The bacteria showed wide range of tolerance towards pH, salinity, temperature and osmotic stress. Bacillus paralicheniformis L38, Pseudomonas sp. LN75, Enterobacter hormachei subsp. xiangfengensis LJ89, B. paramycoides L17 and Micrococcus luteus LA9 significantly improved growth and nutrient (N, P, K, Fe and Zn) content in chickpea under water stress during a green house experiment conducted following a completely randomized design (CRD). Application of Microbacterium imperiale LJ10, B. stercoris LN74, Pseudomonas sp. LN75, B. paralicheniformis L38 and E. hormachei subsp. xiangfengensis LJ89 reduced the antioxidant enzymes under water stress. During field experiments conducted following randomized block design (RBD), all the bacterial inoculations improved chickpea yield under water stress. Highest yield (1363 kg ha-1) was obtained in plants inoculated with Pseudomonas sp. LN75. Pseudomonas sp. LN75, B. paralicheniformis L38 and E. hormachei subsp. xiangfengensis LJ89 have potential as microbial stimulants to alleviate the water stress in chickpea. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of using chasmophyte associated bacteria for alleviation of water stress in a crop plant.

Zinc finger knuckle genes are associated with tolerance to drought and dehydration in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.).

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a very important food legume and needs improved drought tolerance for higher seed production in dry environments. The aim of this study was to determine diversity and genetic polymorphism in zinc finger knuckle genes with CCHC domains and their functional analysis for practical improvement of chickpea breeding. Two CaZF-CCHC genes, Ca04468 and Ca07571, were identified as potentially important candidates associated with plant responses to drought and dehydration. To study these genes, various methods were used including Sanger sequencing, DArT (Diversity array technology) and molecular markers for plant genotyping, gene expression analysis using RT-qPCR, and associations with seed-related traits in chickpea plants grown in field trials. These genes were studied for genetic polymorphism among a set of chickpea accessions, and one SNP was selected for further study from four identified SNPs between the promoter regions of each of the two genes. Molecular markers were developed for the SNP and verified using the ASQ and CAPS methods. Genotyping of parents and selected breeding lines from two hybrid populations, and SNP positions on chromosomes with haplotype identification, were confirmed using DArT microarray analysis. Differential expression profiles were identified in the parents and the hybrid populations under gradual drought and rapid dehydration. The SNP-based genotypes were differentially associated with seed weight per plant but not with 100 seed weight. The two developed and verified SNP molecular markers for both genes, Ca04468 and Ca07571, respectively, could be used for marker-assisted selection in novel chickpea cultivars with improved tolerance to drought and dehydration.

Chickpea seed endophyte Enterobacter sp. mediated yield and nutritional enrichment of chickpea for improving human and livestock health.

Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) are used as a good source of proteins and energy in the diets of various organisms including humans and animals. Chickpea straws can serve as an alternative option for forage for different ruminants. This research mainly focussed on screening the effects of adding beneficial chickpea seed endophytes on increasing the nutritional properties of the different edible parts of chickpea plants. Two efficient chickpea seed endophytes (Enterobacter sp. strain BHUJPCS-2 and BHUJPCS-8) were selected and applied to the chickpea seeds before sowing in the experiment conducted on clay pots. Chickpea seeds treated with both endophytes showed improved plant growth and biomass accumulation. Notably, improvements in the uptake of mineral nutrients were found in the foliage, pericarp, and seed of the chickpea plants. Additionally, nutritional properties such as total phenolics (0.47, 0.25, and 0.55 folds), total protein (0.04, 0.21, and 0.18 folds), carbohydrate content (0.31, 0.32, and 0.31 folds), and total flavonoid content (0.45, 027, and 0.8 folds) were increased in different parts (foliage, pericarp, and seed) of the chickpea plants compared to the control plants. The seed endophyte-treated plants showed a significant increase in mineral accumulation and improvement in nutrition in the different edible parts of chickpea plants. The results showed that the seed endophyte-mediated increase in dietary and nutrient value of the different parts (pericarp, foliage, and seeds) of chickpea are consumed by humans, whereas the other parts (pericarp and foliage) are used as alternative options for forage and chaff in livestock diets and may have direct effects on their nutritional conditions.

Assessing the effects of free fall conditions on damage to chickpea seeds: A comprehensive examination of seed deterioration.

Impact damage is the most destructive effect on the seeds during harvesting, handling, and storage, both on-farm and off-farm. The chickpea seeds' dicotyledonous characteristics and large mass and size make them susceptible to mechanical damage under impact loading. Tests were conducted to determine the extent of damage to chickpea seeds due to the impact caused by free fall. The extent of internal damage to the chickpea seeds was determined, which included the measurement of seed deterioration by the accelerated aging method (percentage loss in germination in the accelerated aging test) and the measurement of electrical conductivity. Three independent variables were used in the test, namely: (a) drop height (3, 6, 9, and 12 m), (b) impact surface (concrete, metal, plywood and seeds on seeds), and (c) seed moisture content (10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% w.b). The results showed that drop height, impact surface, and moisture content had significant effects (p < .01) on the loss in germination percentage and change in electrical conductivity of chickpea seeds. In terms of loss in germination, the highest damage to seeds occurred at the metal impact surface (41.96%) and the least at the seed on the seed (29.71%). The highest amount of electrical conductivity was related to the seeds dropped on the metal (36.09 µS cm-1 g-1) and the lowest was related to seed-on-seed contact (21.68 µS cm-1 g-1). By increasing the drop height from 3 to 12 m, the loss in germination and electrical conductivity of seeds increased from 27.74% to 48.08% and from 18.72 to 40.47 µS cm-1 g-1, respectively. Increasing the moisture content of chickpea seeds from 10 to 25% causes a decrease in the amount of damage to the seeds in terms of electrical conductivity (from 38.40 to 21.18 µS cm-1 g-1), but increases the damage in the form of a loss in the percentage germination in the accelerated aging test (from 29.22% to 42.88%). To reduce the impact damage to peas caused by free fall, the height of the fall should be limited to about 6 m, and they should be prevented from hitting hard and rough surfaces.

Effects of repeated and continuous dry heat treatments on the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro digestion properties of chickpea starch.

The study investigated the impacts of repeated (RDH) and continuous dry heat (CDH) treatments on the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro digestion properties of chickpea starch. The results of SEM and CLSM showed that more fissures and holes appeared on the surface of granules as the treated time of CDH and the circles of RDH increased, both of which made the starch sample much easier to break down by digestive enzymes. Moreover, the fissures and holes of starch granules treated by CDH were more obvious than those of RDH. The XRD and FT-IR results suggested that the crystal type remained C-type, and the relative crystallinity and R1047/1022 of the chickpea starch decreased after dry heat treatments. In addition, a marked decline in the pasting viscosity and gelatinization temperature of chickpea starches was found with dry heat treatments. Moreover, the increased enzyme accessibility of starch was fitted as suggested by the increased RDS content and digestion rate. This study provided basic data for the rational design of chickpea starch-based foods with nutritional functions.

Uncovering DNA methylation landscapes to decipher evolutionary footprints of phenotypic diversity in chickpea.

Genetic diversity and environmental factors are long believed to be the dominant contributors to phenotypic diversity in crop plants. However, it has been recently established that, besides genetic variation, epigenetic variation, especially variation in DNA methylation, plays a significant role in determining phenotypic diversity in crop plants. Therefore, assessing DNA methylation diversity in crop plants becomes vital, especially in the case of crops like chickpea, which has a narrow genetic base. Thus, in the present study, we employed whole-genome bisulfite sequencing to assess DNA methylation diversity in wild and cultivated (desi and kabuli) chickpea. This revealed extensive DNA methylation diversity in both wild and cultivated chickpea. Interestingly, the methylation diversity was found to be significantly higher than genetic diversity, suggesting its potential role in providing vital phenotypic diversity for the evolution and domestication of the Cicer gene pool. The phylogeny based on DNA methylation variation also indicates a potential complementary role of DNA methylation variation in addition to DNA sequence variation in shaping chickpea evolution. Besides, the study also identified diverse epi-alleles of many previously known genes of agronomic importance. The Cicer MethVarMap database developed in this study enables researchers to readily visualize methylation variation within the genes and genomic regions of their interest (http://223.31.159.7/cicer/public/). Therefore, epigenetic variation like DNA methylation variation can potentially explain the paradox of high phenotypic diversity despite the narrow genetic base in chickpea and can potentially be employed for crop improvement.

Comparative Nutritional Analysis of Improved and Local Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Cultivars.

Chickpeas have large variations in their types and nutrient composition, owing to diverse environmental conditions, breeding techniques, and cultivars. Thirty-one improved varieties of chickpeas bred for various agronomic traits like high yield, resistance to diseases, and tolerance to abiotic stress were analyzed for their nutrient composition, along with two local varieties. They were found to be rich in proteins (16.09-26.22 g/100 g) and dietary fiber (10.33-26.33 g/100 g) with moderate amounts of available carbohydrates (34.20-54.72 g/100 g) and to have a significant quantity of minerals like calcium (127.50-183.86 mg/100 g), iron (4.55-8.33 mg/100 g), and phosphorous (285.92-528.31 mg/100 g). They were found to be similar (fat, carbohydrates, dietary fiber) or statistically higher (protein, ash) than the local varieties for all the nutrient parameters that were analyzed. A significant difference was also found between the desi and kabuli varieties, where the desi variety was found to have significantly lower fat and available carbohydrates but high dietary fiber content. This study signifies that the varietal differences in nutritional composition are significant in chickpeas. Varieties like Sasho, ICCV 96030, and Teketay showed desirable nutritional qualities associated with moisture, protein, dietary fiber, and minerals like zinc, phosphorous, iron, copper, and calcium. This data will be beneficial for manufacturers in the product development and value addition industries for the selection of varieties ideal for their needs since the nutrient component also confers several functional and physiochemical properties to the chickpea seed besides providing a nutritionally diverse diet.

MicroRNA164e suppresses NAC100 transcription factor-mediated synthesis of seed storage proteins in chickpea.

Development of protein-enriched chickpea varieties necessitates an understanding of specific genes and key regulatory circuits that govern the synthesis of seed storage proteins (SSPs). Here, we demonstrated the novel involvement of Ca-miR164e-CaNAC100 in regulating SSP synthesis in chickpea. Ca-miRNA164e was significantly decreased during seed maturation, especially in high-protein accessions. The miRNA was found to directly target the transactivation conferring C-terminal region of a nuclear-localized transcription factor, CaNAC100 as revealed using RNA ligase-mediated-rapid amplification of cDNA ends and target mimic assays. The functional role of CaNAC100 was demonstrated through seed-specific overexpression (NACOE) resulting in significantly augmented seed protein content (SPC) consequential to increased SSP transcription. Further, NACOE lines displayed conspicuously enhanced seed weight but reduced numbers and yield. Conversely, a downregulation of CaNAC100 and SSP transcripts was evident in seed-specific overexpression lines of Ca-miR164e that culminated in significantly lowered SPC. CaNAC100 was additionally demonstrated to transactivate the SSP-encoding genes by directly binding to their promoters as demonstrated using electrophoretic mobility shift and dual-luciferase reporter assays. Taken together, our study for the first time established a distinct role of CaNAC100 in positively influencing SSP synthesis and its critical regulation by CamiR164e, thereby serving as an understanding that can be utilized for developing SPC-rich chickpea varieties.

Quality and functional properties of bread containing the addition of probiotically fermented Cicer arietinum.

This study aimed to determine the impact of supplementation with probiotically fermented chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) seeds on the quality parameters and functional characteristics of wheat bread. The addition of chickpea seeds caused significant changes in the chemical composition of the control wheat bread. The legume-supplemented products exhibited higher values of a* and b* color parameters and higher hardness after 24 h of storage than the control. The application of fermented or unfermented chickpeas contributed to an increase in total polyphenol and flavonoid contents, iron chelating capacity, and antioxidant properties of the final product. The variant containing unfermented seeds had the highest riboflavin content (29.53 ± 1.11 µg/100 g d.w.), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (227.02 ± 7.29 µmol·L-1 TX/100 g d.w.), and free radical scavenging activity (71.37 ± 1.30 % DPPH inhibition). The results of this preliminary research have practical importance in the production of innovative bakery products with potential properties of functional food.