Effects of milk replacer powder added to pasteurized whole milk over different durations on dairy calves fed ground starter diet with alfalfa hay.

Adding milk replacer powder (MRP) to whole milk during the entire preweaning period can increase growth but raises concern because of low starter feed intake and slumps in average daily gain (ADG) at weaning and postweaning. In the current study, effects of adding MRP to pasteurized whole milk (PWM) during d 10-41 or d 10-59 of age were investigated in comparison with PWM. Calves [24 females and 21 males; 39.8 ± 1.85 kg body weight (BW)] were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 treatments: 1) conventional protocol, 5 L/d PWM from d 3-56, and 2.5 L/d from d 57-59 of age (CONV; TS intake = 31.9 kg), 2) short duration of adding MRP to PWM protocol, 5 L/d PWM from d 3-9, 5 L/d PWM + MRP (18% TS) from d 10-41, 5 L/d PWM from d 42-56, and 2.5 L/d PWM from d 57-59 (SD; TS intake = 42.3 kg), 3) long duration of adding MRP to PWM protocol, 5 L/d PWM from d 3-9, 5 L/d PWM + MRP from d 10-56, 2.5 L/d PWM + MRP form d 57-59 (LD; TS intake = 47.7 kg). The osmolality of PWM and PWM + MRP was 278 and 519 mOsm/L, respectively. Calves were weaned on d 60, and the study terminated on d 75. There was a treatment × time interaction for starter intake, where intake was greater for CONV than other treatments from d 14-41 and was greater in CONV than LD during d 42-48 and d 56-62 of age. Final BW was lower in CONV calves than LD calves. Weaning BW and overall hip height were lower in CONV calves than other treatments. The CONV calves had lower ADG at d 14-27 and 35-41 and SD calves had lower ADG at d 42-48 than other treatments. Calves fed CONV treatment had lower ruminal acetate and greater propionate than SD calves during preweaning. Calves fed LD treatment had lower total volatile fatty acids and tended to have greater ruminal pH than other treatments. Calves fed CONV had greater neutrophils and neutrophils/lymphocytes ratio and lower lymphocytes than other treatments. Glucose concentration was greater for LD versus other treatments at d 56, and lower for SD versus other treatments at d 70 of study. Insulin concentration and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance index were greater in LD compared with other treatments during preweaning but were not different postweaning. Serum BHB was greater in CONV than other treatments. Albumin was greater for CONV versus other treatments at d 56, however, it was greater in LD-fed calves at d 70 of study. Results indicate that feeding a PWM + MRP to the calves during the entire preweaning period resulted in lower starter feed intake around weaning, but overall starter intake was similar with a greater final BW and fewer health related issues throughout the study. Shifting a PWM + MRP to the conventional whole milk at d 40 of age decreased the ADG of calves.

Graduate Student Literature Review: Role of antioxidants in calf immunity, growth, and health.

The neonatal period for dairy calves is crucial for immune, metabolic, and physical development, which opens a window of disease susceptibility. Although the industry has relied on tools such as colostrum and vaccination to support early life immunity, there are several challenges when vaccinating neonatal calves: (1) the inability to mount an effective immune response, (2) interference with maternal antibodies, and (3) oxidative stress (OS). Oxidative stress is characterized as the imbalance of pro-oxidants to antioxidants that results in cellular oxidative damage or dysfunction. Oxidative stress has become a topic of interest in the neonatal period because it negatively affects lymphocyte function, which might affect vaccine response. Widely studied in mature cattle, antioxidant supplementation has the potential to improve reduction-oxidation balance and immune response. Evidence supporting the use of antioxidants such as vitamins and minerals in neonatal calves is far scarcer but necessary to optimize immunity and disease resistance. This review summarizes research on the effect of antioxidant supplementation on calf immunity, health, and productivity and highlights remaining gaps in knowledge. Overall, micronutrient supplementation, including vitamins and minerals, in preweaning and postweaning calves improved immune responses but there is conflicting evidence supporting the subsequent positive effect on calf health and growth performance.

Impacts of preweaning colostrum feeding practices and health measures on dairy cow production, while accounting for genetic potential.

Calf management and health are essential for setting up the foundation of a productive cow. The objectives of this study were to estimate the impact of preweaning practices on milk production parameters while accounting for an animal's genetic potential in New Brunswick, Canada. A retrospective cohort study was performed on 220 heifer calves from eight herds born in 2014-2015. Preweaning practices and health data were recorded by producers and reviewed by the herd veterinarian for each calf. The herd veterinarian also visited the farms to collect serum samples from calves and frozen colostrum samples. The production outcomes assessed were milk, protein and fat yields, standardized to 305 d for the first lactation (L1) and a combined group of lactations two and three (L2 + 3). The genomic potential was determined as genomic parent averages (GPA) for the associated production parameters. Analysis was performed with multivariable linear (L1) and linear mixed (L2 + 3) regression models. In L1, for every 1.0 kg increase in weaning weight, milk, protein, and fat yield increased by 25.5, 0.82, and 1.01 kg, respectively (P < 0.006). Colostrum feeding time (CFT) positively impacted L1 milk and protein production, with feeding between 1-2 h of life producing the greatest estimates of 626 kg of milk and 18.2 kg of protein yield (P < 0.007), compared to earlier or later CFT. Fat yield production was decreased by 80.5 kg (P < 0.006) in L1 when evaluating animals that developed a preweaning disease and were not treated with antibiotics compared to healthy untreated animals. Impacts on L2 + 3 were similar across all production outcomes, with a positive interaction effect of CFT and weaning weight. Compared to CFT < 1 h, the later CFT groups of 1-2 h and > 2 h produced greater yield outcomes of 68.2 to 72.6 kg for milk (P < 0.006), 2.06 to 2.15 kg for protein (P < 0.005), and 1.8 to 1.9 kg for fat (P < 0.045) for every 1 kg increase of weaning weight, respectively. The fit of all models was significantly improved with the inclusion of GPA. These results indicate that colostrum management and preweaning health measures impacted production parameters as adults. The inclusion of GPA significantly improved the accuracy of the models, indicating that this can be an important parameter to include in future studies.

The impact of calf management and health events have been predominately investigated during the preweaning period. However, calfhood events could also impact the animal's health and productivity as an adult. Results from this study indicate that colostrum feeding time and weaning weight were associated with production outcomes (milk, protein, and fat yields) across the first three lactations, and disease and antibiotic treatment can be detrimental to fat yield in the first lactation. By including genetic potential in the assessment of preweaning colostrum practices and health measures on production outcomes, we can more precisely identify areas to optimize calf management.

Fructo-oligosaccharides supplementation enhances the growth of nursing dairy calves while stimulating the persistence of Bifidobacterium and hindgut microbiome's maturation.

The colonization and development of the gut microbiome in dairy calves play a crucial role in their overall health and future productivity. Despite the widely proposed benefits of inulin-related products on the host, there is insufficient information about how supplementing fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) impacts the colonization and development of the gut microbiome in calves. In a randomized intervention trial involving newborn male Holstein dairy calves, we investigated the impact of FOS on the calf hindgut microbiome, short-chain fatty acids, growth performance, and the incidence of diarrhea. The daily administration of FOS exhibited a time-dependent increase in the average daily gain and the concentration of short-chain fatty acids. Concurrently, FOS delayed the natural decline of Bifidobacterium, promoting the maturation and stabilization of the hindgut microbiome. These findings not only contribute to a theoretical understanding of the judicious application of prebiotics but also hold significant practical implications for the design of early life dietary interventions in the rearing of dairy calves.

Milk replacer feeding once or twice a day did not change the ruminal metabolomic profile and the microbial diversity of dairy calves from birth to weaning.

In commercial dairy production systems, feeding calves once a day could be an alternative to reduce labor expenses. Several studies comparing once (OAD) versus twice (TAD) a day milk feeding systems have not evidenced differences in calf growth, rumen development, blood parameters or health scores, but impact on ruminal microbiota remains to be investigated. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of OAD or TAD on the establishment of the ruminal microbiota and its metabolic activity. Sixteen male calves (45.9 ± 5.7 kg at birth) were involved in the trial from birth to weaning (63 d). After the colostrum phase, 2 feeding programs based on a milk replacer were tested and calves were allocated to these programs on d 5. To study the establishment of the bacterial community, ruminal fluid was obtained from each calf one hour after the morning meal at 7 (d 7), 35 (d 35) and 63 (d 63) days of age. The ruminal metabolome was evaluated at a 7 d interval from d 1 to d 63. Ruminal microbiota and metabolite profiles were characterized by 16 S rRNA gene sequencing- and by H-NMR spectroscopy, respectively. Our results showed that feeding milk replacer once or twice a day did not change the ruminal microbiota and metabolites of dairy calves from birth to weaning. Microbial data showed that diversity and richness increased with age, suggesting a shift from an heterogeneous and less diverse community after birth (d 7) to a more diverse but homogeneous community at 35 and 63 d. These findings suggest that feeding milk once a day can be successfully applied to a calf feeding system without compromising microbial establishment and functions.

Rehydration post-transport: duration of oral fluid therapy on behavior, biochemical measures of hydration, and health of neonatal dairy calves.

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of 0, 1, 2, or 3 d of oral electrolyte solutions (OES) following transport on calf behavior, biochemical measures of hydration, and subsequent health. Two cohorts of 60 Holstein bull calves ~3 to 7 d of age were included in this experiment. Calves (n = 30/treatment) were randomized to 1 of 4 treatments on arrival at a calf-raising facility: (1) 1-d OES, (2) 2-d OES, (3) 3-d OES, or (4) no OES (control). Calves were evaluated for signs of arthritis, depression, dehydration, diarrhea, fever, navel inflammation, and respiratory disease on arrival (day 0) and 1, 2, 3, and 7 d after arrival. Blood was obtained following each examination to assess biochemical measures of hydration, including serum electrolytes, glucose, hematocrit, lactate, pH, and serum total protein (STP). Calves were fitted with 3D accelerometers attached to the right hind leg along the metatarsus bone to continuously measure lying time. Linear regression models with Gaussian or Poisson link functions were used to test differences between treatments in blood parameters, as well as disease frequency and behavior, respectively. Calves spent the most time lying immediately post-transport (day 0); however, there was no effect of OES treatment on lying time. On arrival, 90% (95% CI: 84.6% to 95.4%) of calves had mild to moderate dehydration, and there was no significant difference in hydration status across treatments. Mildly dehydrated calves that received 1- and 2-d OES had higher STP concentration compared to the control. Moderately dehydrated calves that received 3- vs. 1-d OES had higher (101.4 vs. 93.7 mmol/L, respectively; P = 0.01) glucose concentration, and 3- vs. 2-d OES (101.4 vs. 96.2, respectively; P = 0.07) calves tended to have higher glucose concentration. The prevalence of failed transfer of passive immunity (STP < 5.1 g/dL) and hypoglycemia (glucose < 4.95 mmol/L) was 26.7% (18.6% to 34.7%) and 76.5% (68.7% to 84.2%), respectively. The frequency of moderate dehydration was lower for calves that received 2-d OES compared to the control (count ratio: 0.4; 0.2% to 0.8%; P = 0.009). These results underline the need for more research on rehydration strategies to help inform calf processing protocols. Future research should investigate preconditioning strategies to minimize the impact of marketing and transport on dairy calves. Continued nutritional-based research is also needed to better support calves' recovery post-transport.

Most male calves are sold and transported from the dairy farm soon after birth. Typically, calves are transported without access to milk and/or water, and they often arrive at calf-raising facilities with varying degrees of dehydration. This study provided calves with 0 (control), 1, 2, or 3 consecutive days of oral electrolyte solutions following transportation and assessed calf behavior, biomarkers of hydration, and subsequent health post-transport. Most calves were dehydrated and hypoglycemic (low blood glucose levels) on arrival at the calf-raising facility. Calves spent the most time lying immediately post-transport; however, electrolytes did not impact total lying time, the number of lying bouts, or lying bout duration. Providing calves with electrolytes for 2 d improved moderate dehydration (assessed via skin tent test) compared to the control. These results suggest that providing calves with 2 consecutive days of electrolytes following transportation can improve hydration status; however, more research is needed to mitigate dehydration prior to arrival at calf-raising facilities.

Effects of Supplementing Milk Replacer with Sodium Butyrate on Dairy Calves.

Diarrhea and respiratory diseases pose significant challenges in the rearing of pre-weaned calves, motivating the investigation of tools to improve gastrointestinal tract development, health, and overall performance in young calves. Consequently, the primary objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of an additive incorporated into milk replacer to promote the development and health of the animals. Forty-six dairy calves were randomly assigned into two treatments: control (CON, n = 23; with 15 females and 8 males), and sodium butyrate (SB, n = 23; with 15 females and 8 males). The calves in the SB treatment group were supplemented with 4 g/d of unprotected sodium butyrate (Adimix, Adisseo, China), added to the milk replacer from 4 to 60 days of age. Water and starter were fed ad libitum. The study evaluated several parameters, including feed intake, nutrient digestibility, ruminal pH, ammonia and volatile fatty acids, blood metabolites (glucose, insulin-like growth factor type 1, urea, ß-hydroxybutyrate), hemogram, health scores, performance, and feed efficiency. Bull calves were euthanized at 60 days of age for organ comparison, while heifer calves were assessed for carryover effects up to 90 days of age. Data were analyzed independently using linear mixed models using the nlme package in R, and the Artools package for non-parametric categorical outcomes. Although the feed intake and performance variables exhibited differences within weeks, no divergence was observed between treatment groups. Notably, a positive treatment-by-week interaction was identified for starter feed intake (p = 0.02) and total dry matter intake (p = 0.04) during pre-weaning for CON animals. Ruminal parameters, blood metabolites, and hemogram values such as glucose, urea, insulin-like growth factor type 1, mean corpuscular value, lymphocytes, and neutrophils displayed differences within weeks during the pre-weaning stage, but similar results within groups. No differences between supplemented and non-supplemented calves were found across nutrient digestibility, organ development, and histology. Regarding health scores, differences were noted within weeks for fecal and respiratory scores during the pre-weaning stage, and only the respiratory score during the post-weaning stage. Consequently, butyrate supplementation did not elicit improvements or negative effects in the body development or health status of dairy calves.

Effects of supplementing colostrum beyond the first day of life on growth and health parameters of preweaning Holstein heifers.

The preweaning period for a dairy calf is characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates, leading to financial losses for producers. Identifying strategies to improve the health and welfare of calves while reducing antimicrobial use continues to be crucial to the success of the dairy industry. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of feeding colostrum replacer (CR) to dairy heifer calves beyond d 1 of life on growth, serum IgG, the incidence of diarrhea and bovine respiratory disease (BRD), and the risk of mortality in the preweaning period. At birth, Holstein heifer calves (n = 200; 50/treatment) weighing 40.7 ± 0.35 kg (mean ± SE) were fed 3.2 L of CR (205 g IgG/feeding) at 0 h and 12 h of life. Calves were then randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatments: 450 g of milk replacer (MR) from d 2 to 14 (control, CON), 380 g of CR + 225 g of MR from d 2 to 3, then 450 g of MR from d 4 to 14 (transition, TRAN), 45 g of CR + 450 g of MR from d 2 to 14 (extended, EXT); or 380 g of CR + 225 g of MR from d 2 to 3, then 45 g of CR + 450 g of MR from d 4 to 14 (transition + extended, TRAN+EXT). Each treatment was reconstituted to 3 L and fed twice daily. All CR treatments were fed using bovine-derived CR containing 27% IgG. From d 15 to 41, all calves were fed 600 g of MR reconstituted to 4 L twice daily. Body weight was recorded at birth and every 7 d until study completion on d 49. Blood samples were taken daily until d 7 to evaluate serum IgG and then every 7 d until d 49. A health assessment was performed daily to evaluate calves for BRD and diarrhea. Data were analyzed using mixed linear regression, mixed logistic regression, and survival analysis models in SAS 9.4. Serum IgG concentrations were not affected by treatment for the study period. The EXT and TRAN+EXT groups had greater average daily gain (ADG) from d 7 to 14 (0.14 kg/d) and the TRAN group had greater ADG from d 14 to 21 (0.11 kg/d), compared with CON. There was no association of treatment with the odds or the duration of a diarrhea bout. However, provision of CR to the TRAN and EXT calves was associated with a reduced hazard of diarrhea compared with CON calves. Furthermore, TRAN and EXT calves have a lower hazard of mortality compared with CON calves, with TRAN and EXT calves had a 2.8- and 3.8-times lower hazard of mortality, respectively. Our findings suggest that the supplementation of CR to dairy calves positively affects ADG, and reduces the hazard of diarrhea and mortality during the preweaning period. Future research should look to further refine the supplementation strategy of CR to calves and explore the mechanism of action.

Condition of surplus dairy calves during marketing: A cross-sectional study.

In North America, surplus dairy calves are sold soon after birth and often marketed through a third party (e.g., live auction, livestock dealer) before entering veal or dairy beef production. Previous work has demonstrated that a percentage of calves have failed transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) and clinical signs of disease on arrival at calf-raising facilities, but little is known regarding calf condition during marketing. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to (1) estimate the prevalence of FTPI and poor health outcomes in surplus calves on arrival at livestock dealers, and (2) investigate the association between calf-level variables (body weight, sex, source) and health outcomes. Two livestock dealers in Ohio were visited 2 to 3 times per week, with approximately 28 calves enrolled in the study per visit for a total of 1,119 calves. One blood sample per calf was obtained to evaluate FTPI by measuring serum total protein concentrations (using a cutoff <5.1 g/dL). Calves were clinically evaluated for signs of arthritis, broken ribs or tail, dehydration, depression, diarrhea, fever, navel inflammation, and respiratory disease by 2 observers; health outcomes were dichotomized using clinically relevant cut points. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate the prevalence of calves with poor health outcomes. Multivariable logistic regression models were built to investigate the effect of body weight, sex, and source on health outcomes. Nineteen percent (206/1,091) of calves had FTPI.

Comparative diagnoses of respiratory disease in preweaned dairy calves using sequential thoracic ultrasonography and clinical respiratory scoring.

AIMS: Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) has serious impacts on dairy production and animal welfare. It is most commonly diagnosed based on clinical respiratory signs (CRS), but in recent years, thoracic ultrasonography (TUS) has emerged as a diagnostic tool with improved sensitivity and specificity. This study aimed to assess the alignment of BRD diagnoses based on a Clinical Respiratory Scoring Chart (CRSC) and weekly TUS findings throughout the progression of BRD of variable severity in preweaned Holstein dairy heifers. METHODS: A total of 60 calves on two farms were followed from the 2nd week of life through the 11th week of life and assessed on a weekly basis for CRS and lung consolidation via TUS. The alignment of BRD diagnoses based on CRSC scores and TUS findings was evaluated across disease progression (pre-consolidation, onset, chronic, or recovered) and severity (lobular or lobar lung consolidation) using receiver operator curves and area under the curves combined with Cohen's kappa (κ), sensitivity, and specificity. RESULTS: The diagnosis of BRD using CRSC scores ≥5 aligned best with the onset of lobar lung consolidation (>1 cm in width and full thickness). This equated to an acceptable level of discrimination (AUC = 0.76), fair agreement (κ = 0.37), and a sensitivity of 29% and specificity of 99%. Similarly, there was acceptable discrimination (AUC = 0.70) and fair agreement (κ = 0.33) between CRSC ≥5 and the onset of a less severe threshold of disease based on lobular (1-3 cm2 but not full thickness) or lobar consolidation. Discrimination remained acceptable (AUC = 0.71) with fair agreement (κ = 0.28) between CRSC scores ≥2 for nasal discharge and/or cough (spontaneous or induced) and the onset of lobar consolidation. However, sensitivity was <40% across comparisons and outside of the onset of disease there tended to be poor discrimination, slight agreement, and lowered sensitivity between CRS and TUS diagnoses of lobular or lobar consolidation (pre-consolidation, chronic, or recovered). Conversely, specificity was relatively high (≥92%) across comparisons suggesting that CRSC diagnoses indicative of BRD and associated lung consolidation tend to result in few false positive diagnoses and accurate identification of healthy animals. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Although we found the specificity of clinical signs for diagnosing lung consolidation to be ≥92% across all methods of TUS evaluations, the low levels of sensitivity dictate that clinical assessments lead to many false negative diagnoses. Consequently, depending on clinical signs alone to diagnose BRD within populations of dairy calves will likely result in overlooking a substantial proportion of subclinically affected animals that could inform the success of treatment and prevention protocols and guide management decisions.

Comparable Evaluation of Nutritional Benefits of Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus toyonensis Probiotic Supplementation on Growth, Feed Utilization, Health, and Fecal Microbiota in Pre-Weaning Male Calves.

This study was conducted to investigate the impact of probiotic supplementation using Lactobacillus plantarum DSA 20174 and/or Bacillus toyonensis ATCC 55050 on growth performance, blood parameters, hematological measures, and fecal microbiota in pre-weaning Holstein calves. Thirty-two four-day-old male calves with a similar genetic background, weighing an average of 38.27 ± 0.12 kg, were randomly assigned to four groups. The groups consisted of a control group (CON) without supplementation, a group receiving B. toyonensis (BT) at 3 × 109 cfu/calf/day, a group receiving L. plantarum (LP) at 1 × 1010 cfu/calf/day, and a group receiving a combination of LP and BT (LP + BT) at half the dosage for each. The study found that calves supplemented with LP and LP + BT experienced significant improvements in average daily gain and final body weight compared to the control group. The LP + BT group showed the most positive effects on TDMI, starter intake, and CP intake. RBC counts tended to be higher in the probiotic groups, with the LP + BT group having the highest values. The LP + BT group also had higher total protein, albumin, globulin, and hematocrit concentrations. All probiotic groups showed higher serum IgG concentrations. Probiotic supplementation led to increased total bacterial count and decreased levels of E. coli, salmonella, and clostridium. The LP + BT group had a significant decrease in coliform count, while both LP and LP + BT groups had increased Lactobacillus populations. In conclusion, LP + BT probiotic supplement showed the most beneficial effects on growth, feed efficiency, blood constituents, and modulation of fecal microbiota composition.

The age at first consumption of forage in calves and its effect on growth and rumination in the short- and long-term.

BACKGROUND: Previous investigations into the effect of dietary forage on calf performance have been inconsistent, and there is a paucity of information exploring the effect of age on the growth performance and rumination of calves. Eighty-four female Holstein calves (41.5 ± 4.2 kg) were enrolled at birth, a subset of the calves were fed calf starter only (CON, n = 21) while the rest (n = 63) were classified into three treatment groups: the early (EHAY, n = 26, 5.1 ± 0.8 d), the middle (MHAY, n = 21, 7.9 ± 0.8 d) and the late (LHAY, n = 16, 12.1 ± 1.4 d) hay consumers. The short-term effect of the age at first forage consumption (AFF) on calves' feed intake was monitored until d 84. In addition, the long-term effects of AFF on body weight, structural growth and rumination behavior were recorded until d 196. Rumen samples were collected on d 1, 7, 35, 84 and 196 to analyze the rumen fermentation, while fecal samples were collected from d 78 to 84 to estimate digestibility parameters. RESULTS: Treatment had no effect on feed intake. While, the EHAY calves tended to have lower BW and ADG compared to LHAY and CON calves. Several total-tract apparent digestibility parameters and digestible nutrients intake were significantly lower in EHAY calves compared with CON and LHAY calves. Calves in the EHAY group tended to begin ruminating ealier, while CON calves were the latest (12.3 vs. 15.5 days of age). A treatment and time interaction was present for rumination time due to greater rumination in calves consuming hay compared to CON calves in week 10 to 12, the differences in rumination disappeared afterwards, no long-lasting significant differences in the rumination and rumen fermentation parameters were found between treatments. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, this study showed that hay consumption earlier in life (in the first week, around 5 days of life) could negatively affect the growth of the calf in the short and long term. Compared to consuming hay from the second week (around 12 days of life) or feeding concentrate only without hay, starting to consume hay from the first week could compromise nutrient digestibility and digestible nutrient intake independent of developing rumination behaviour and rumen fermentation.

Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) Associated with Calf Mortality in Uruguay.

In Uruguay, the mortality of dairy calves due to infectious diseases is high. Escherichia coli is a natural inhabitant of the intestinal microbiota, but can cause several infections. The aim of the work was to characterize E. coli isolates from intestinal and extraintestinal origin of dead newborn calves. Using PCR, virulence gene characteristics of pathogenic E. coli were searched. The pathogenic E. coli were molecularly characterized and the phylogroup, serogroup and the Stx subtype were determined. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) genes with PCR. Finally, clonal relationships were inferred using PFGE. Gene characteristics of the Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and Necrotoxigenic E. coli (NTEC) were identified. The prevalence of the iucD, afa8E, f17, papC, stx1, eae and ehxA genes was high and no f5, f41, saa, sfaDE, cdtIV, lt, sta or stx2 were detected. The prevalence of STEC gene stx1 in the dead calves stood out and was higher compared with previous studies conducted in live calves, and STEC LEE+ (Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)) isolates with stx1/eae/ehxA genotypes were more frequently identified in the intestinal than in the extraintestinal environment. E. coli isolates were assigned to phylogroups A, B1, D and E, and some belonged to the O111 serogroup. stx1a and stx1c subtypes were determined in STEC. A high prevalence of multi-resistance among STEC and qnrB genes was determined. The PFGE showed a high diversity of pathogenic strains with similar genetic profiles. It can be speculated that EHEC (stx1/eae/ehxA) could play an important role in mortality. The afa8E, f17G1 and papC genes could also have a role in calf mortality. Multidrug resistance defies disease treatment and increases the risk of death, while the potential transmissibility of genes to other species constitutes a threat to public health.

Validation of a methodology for characterization of rumination, lying, standing, and performing non-nutritive oral behaviors and behavioral patterns in Holstein dairy calves.

Calf behavior is closely related to its early growth, production performance, and health performance. Continuous behavior recording is the most accurate but also time-consuming method used for monitoring animal behaviors, so the instantaneous sampling method is often adopted to minimize the time required to quantify behavioral observations in animal studies. Moreover, the optimal sampling intervals required to yield accurate information for estimating Holstein dairy calves' behaviors are still unknown. Our primary objective was to determine the most optimal sampling intervals for monitoring behaviors of Holstein dairy calves during preweaning and weaning periods to improve efficiency while maintaining reliability. The secondary objective was to describe their behavioral patterns. Rumination, lying, standing, and non-nutritive oral behavior (NNOB) data of 18 calves (observation time: 360 h/calf, 6,480 h in total) were continuously recorded for 15 d (3 d at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 wk of age). The continuous behavioral data were compared with instantaneous sampling at 5 s, 10 s, 15 s, 30 s,1 min, 3 min, 5 min, 10 min, 15 min, 30 min, and 60 min intervals. Sampling intervals were considered accurate if they met 4 criteria: coefficient of determination ≥0.90 (i.e., strongly related to true values), slope = 1, intercept = 0 (i.e., they did not over- or underestimate true values), and relative error <10%. The most optimal sampling interval was considered the highest sampling interval among the 11 sampling intervals that meet the criteria for accurate monitoring. As expected, the strength of the linear relationship between the continuous recording and instantaneous sampling decreased as the sampling intervals increased. The results varied across the different behaviors, with rumination, lying, standing, and NNOB being reliable at instantaneous recordings of 3 min, 10 min, 10 min, and 1 min for the preweaning period (1, 3, and 6 wk of age) and 10 min, 10 min, 15 min, and 3 min for the postweaning period (9 and 12 wk of age). In terms of behavioral patterns, lying time decreased, whereas rumination, standing, and NNOB time increased with age. After weaning, no significant changes in time spent performing these behaviors. Additionally, the rumination behavioral pattern becomes stable after wk 6 with decreasing after the morning feeding and occurring mainly in the morning. In conclusion, instantaneous sampling is a reliable method for monitoring the behaviors of dairy calves, but the optimal sampling intervals should be selected based on different ages and management conditions.

Effects of wildfire smoke PM2.5 on indicators of inflammation, health, and metabolism of preweaned Holstein heifers.

Wildfires are a growing concern as large, catastrophic fires are becoming more commonplace. Wildfire smoke consists of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which can cause immune responses and disease in humans. However, the present knowledge of the effects of wildfire PM2.5 on dairy cattle is sparse. The present study aimed to elucidate the effects of wildfire-PM2.5 exposure on dairy calf health and performance. Preweaned Holstein heifers (N = 15) were assessed from birth through weaning, coinciding with the 2021 wildfire season. Respiratory rate, heart rate, rectal temperatures, and health scores were recorded and blood samples were collected weekly or twice a week for analysis of hematology, blood metabolites, and acute phase proteins. Hourly PM2.5 concentrations and meteorological data were obtained, and temperature-humidity index (THI) was calculated. Contribution of wildfires to PM2.5 fluxes were determined utilizing AirNowTech Navigator and HYSPLIT modeling. Mixed models were used for data analysis, with separate models for lags of up to 7 d, and fixed effects of daily average PM2.5, THI, and PM2.5 × THI, and calf as a random effect. THI ranged from 48 to 73, while PM2.5 reached concentrations up to 118.8 µg/m3 during active wildfires. PM2.5 and THI positively interacted to elevate respiratory rate, heart rate, rectal temperature, and eosinophils on lag day 0 (day of exposure; all P < 0.05). There was a negative interactive effect of PM2.5 and THI on lymphocytes after a 2-d lag (P = 0.03), and total white blood cells, neutrophils, hemoglobin, and hematocrit after a 3-d lag (all P < 0.02), whereas there was a positive interactive effect on cough scores and eye scores on lag day 3 (all P < 0.02). Glucose and NEFA were increased as a result of combined elevated PM2.5 and THI on lag day 1, whereas BHB was decreased (all P < 0.05). Contrarily, on lag day 3 and 6, there was a negative interactive effect of PM2.5 and THI on glucose and NEFA, but a positive interactive effect on BHB (all P < 0.03). Serum amyloid A was decreased whereas haptoglobin was increased with elevated PM2.5 and THI together on lag days 0 to 4 (all P < 0.05). These findings indicate that exposure to wildfire-derived PM2.5, along with increased THI during the summer months, elicits negative effects on preweaned calf health and performance both during and following exposure.

Wildfires contribute to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution throughout the United States. Wildfire-PM2.5 exposure negatively affects human health and dairy cow production; however, the effects on calves are not known. We monitored preweaned calves exposed to natural wildfires to understand how wildfire-PM2.5 exposure affects calf health and performance. Calves exposed to wildfire PM2.5 and elevated temperature­humidity index (THI) experienced respiratory symptoms, alterations in blood cell composition and metabolism, and changes in circulating inflammatory proteins. These results suggest that PM2.5 along with increased THI induced an inflammatory response and alterations in energy metabolism that may contribute to calf health and performance deficits.

Effects of propolis extract on growth performance and health condition of dairy calves.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of propolis ethanol extract, on performance, fecal structure, and general health status of calves during the preweaning phase. For this purpose, 24 Simmental calves that were given colostrum for the first 3 days after birth were enrolled in the study. The study started when the calves were 4 days old and finished when they were 60 days old. These calves were divided into two groups as propolis and control groups according to their weight and gender. Both groups were given the same ration and housed in individual calf huts under the same environmental conditions. Differently from the control group, the calves in the propolis group were given 4 mL of propolis extract (300 mg/mL) with an oral feeding syringe for 56 days after morning feeding. The amounts of feed intake and fecal scores of the calves were recorded daily. Health scores, rectal body temperature, fecal pH, body weight, and body measurements were recorded weekly. For the determination of the counts of Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp., fecal samples were collected at the beginning and at the end of the study. The results indicated that oral administration of propolis had positive effects in terms of some performance parameters, the number of days with diarrhea, and fecal scores. In this study, it was concluded that propolis extract had the potential to positively affect the growth performance and health status of preweaning calves.

Effects of Soybean and Linseed Oils Calcium Salts and Starter Protein Content on Growth Performance, Immune Response, and Nitrogen Utilization Efficiency in Holstein Dairy Calves.

This study aimed to investigate the interaction of fatty acid (FA) source [calcium salt of soybean oil (n-6 FA) vs. calcium salt of linseed oil (n-3 FA) both 3% DM basis] with protein content (18% vs. 22% CP, based on DM) on growth performance, blood metabolites, immune function, skeletal growth indices, urinary purine derivatives (PD), and microbial protein synthesis (MPS) in young dairy calves. Forty 3-day-old calves (20 females and 20 males) with a starting body weight (BW) of 40.2 kg were assigned in a completely randomized block design in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Experimental diets were: (1) n-6 FA with 18% CP (n-6-18CP), (2) n-6 FA with 22% CP (n-6-22CP), (3) n-3 FA with 18% CP (n-3-18CP), and (4) n-3 FA with 22% CP (n-3-22CP). Starter feed intake and average daily gain (ADG) were not influenced by experimental diets (p > 0.05). However, before weaning and the entire period, feed efficiency (FE) was greater in calves fed n-3 FA compared to n-6 FA (p < 0.05). Heart girth (weaning, p < 0.05) and hip height (weaning, p < 0.05 and final, p < 0.01) were highest among experimental treatments in calves who received n-3-22CP diets. The greatest blood glucose (p < 0.05) and insulin (p < 0.01) concentrations in the pre-weaning period and the lowest serum concentration of tumor necrosis factor (before weaning, p < 0.05) were observed in calves fed the n-3-22CP diet. However, the greatest blood urea N (before weaning, p < 0.05; after weaning, p < 0.05) and urinary N excretion (p < 0.05) were found in calves fed n-6-22CP diets compared to other experimental arrangements. In conclusion, offering calves with Ca-salt of n-3 FA along with 22% CP content may be related to improved nitrogen efficiency and immune function.

A Survey of Calf Housing Facilities Pre-Weaning, Management Practices and Farmer Perceptions of Calf Welfare on Irish Dairy Farms.

It is unknown whether calf rearing facilities in the Republic of Ireland are fit for purpose, or if facilities sufficiently consider calf and farmer welfare. The aim of this study was to review current calf housing facilities and management practices on Irish farms to determine if calves are reared in structurally appropriate facilities with management decisions that safeguard calf and farmer welfare. Fifty-one farms located in the Munster region in the Republic of Ireland were visited twice: (1) Pre-calving (December-January) and (2) During peak calving (January-March). During visit one, herd owners completed a questionnaire regarding calf housing and management practices on-farm and each facility used to rear calves was measured (measurement of cubic air capacity, ventilation, pen area, drainage etc.) without calves being present. Visit two consisted of a short interview with the principal calf manager to validate previously asked questions and environmental based measurements of each calf house that had been recorded, with any deviation from the first visit noted (measurements of temperature, wind speed, light intensity, facility provisions in-house and in-pen; calves present). Average herd size was 254, operating a spring calving system with a median calving season length of 11.6 weeks. While most farms expanded (88%; N = 51), this did not appear to have negatively affected calf space allowances (9.9% houses overcrowded at a space allowance of 1.5 m2/calf; N = 121). Calves were most commonly housed in group sizes of <12 (71.6% of all groupings; N = 394), with farmers moving away from individual housing for a period immediately post-birth, to grouping them immediately instead (58.8%; N = 51). The number of farmers testing colostrum was 31.4% (N = 51). Although the calving season was compact, most farmers were unconcerned about the upcoming spring workload (58.8%; N = 51). Farms appeared sufficiently prepared for spring, with most using the same number or less sheds during visit two than declared in visit one (76.5%; N = 51). To conclude, farmers made sufficient provision for calf housing and space allowances for calves that facilitated group housing post-birth. While structural and management components of rearing systems appear in line with sectoral recommendations, certain areas require attention on many farms (e.g., colostrum testing) to safeguard calf welfare and reduce the workload associated with calf rearing for farmers.

A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part I. Impact on health and growth.

Calves arriving to veal and dairy-beef facilities in poor condition are at risk of future health challenges and reduced growth rates, and limited knowledge is available on how time in transit affects subsequent health and growth of these animals. The objective of this randomized controlled trial was to understand the effects of transport duration on diarrhea, respiratory disease, and growth of surplus calves destined for veal production following 6, 12, or 16 h of continuous road transport. Surplus dairy calves (n = 175; 7 transport cohorts) from 5 commercial dairy farms in Ontario, Canada, were enrolled on the day of birth. These calves were clinically examined daily on the source farms until the day before transport and on a daily basis for the first 14 d at the veal farm. On the day of transport, they were randomly assigned to 6, 12, or 16 h of transport to a veal farm. A blood sample was collected between 24 and 48 h of birth to assess transfer of passive immunity status. Calves were weighed at birth, before and immediately after transport, as well as 24, 48, and 72 h after unloading. Calves were also weighed 14 and 50 d after transport. Health exams were conducted daily at the source farm, immediately before and after transport, and once daily for 14 d thereafter to evaluate clinical signs of diarrhea, respiratory disease, dehydration, and navel inflammation. Mixed effects Poisson regression models were used to evaluate variables associated with the number of days with abnormal respiratory and fecal scores, whereas mixed logistic regression models with repeated measures were built to assess the probability of a calf having abnormal respiratory scores, abnormal fecal scores, or dehydration by day after arrival to the facility. A mixed model with repeated measures was used to evaluate calf weight at each time point at which body weight was measured after transport, whereas a mixed linear regression model was used to evaluate factors associated with average daily gain (ADG) in the 50 d after transport. Calves transported for 16 h had greater incidence of abnormal fecal scores compared with 6 h in the 14 d after transport. In addition, an interaction between age and duration of transport on the number of days with abnormal respiratory scores was identified, where calves older than 7 d of age had reduced incidence of abnormal respiratory score compared with calves 2 to 6 d old, even when transported for 16 h. As for growth, age at transport was positively associated with ADG in the 50 d of observation; however, no differences were observed between transport duration groups. These findings highlight that transporting calves for a longer duration negatively affects subsequent health, and calves greater than 1 wk of age experience improved health and growth after transport compared with their younger counterparts.

A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological variables.

Surplus dairy calves often arrive at veal and dairy-beef rearing facilities with health and blood metabolite level abnormalities, which can affect their welfare and performance, predisposing them to future health challenges. The objective of this randomized controlled trial was to investigate the effects of transport duration and age at the time of transport on blood parameters in surplus dairy calves following 6, 12, or 16 h of continuous road transportation. All surplus calves from 5 commercial dairy farms in Ontario were enrolled and examined daily before transport (n = 175). On the day of transportation, calves were weighed, blood sampled, and randomly assigned to 6, 12, or 16 h of transportation. Blood samples were then collected immediately after transportation, as well as 24, 48, and 72 h thereafter. Serum was analyzed at a provincial diagnostic laboratory for nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), ß-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA), creatine kinase (CK), cholesterol, and haptoglobin. In addition, blood gas and electrolyte values were also assessed at the time of sample collection. Mixed models with repeated measures were used to assess the effects of transport duration, breed, sex, transfer of passive immunity status, weight before transportation, and age at transportation on blood parameters. Immediately following transportation, NEFA and BHBA were greater for calves transported for 12 h (Δ = 0.22 mmol/L NEFA, 95% CI = 0.15 to 0.30; Δ = 0.04 mmol/L BHBA, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.06) and 16 h (Δ = 0.35 mmol/L NEFA, 95% CI = 0.27 to 0.42; Δ = 0.10 mmol/L BHBA, 95% CI = 0.08 to 0.11) compared with calves transported for 6 h. Glucose was lower immediately following transportation in calves transported for 16 h compared with 6 h (Δ = -15.54 mg/dL, 95% CI = -21.54 to -9.54). In addition, pH and HCO3- were lower in calves transported for 12 (Δ = -0.09 pH, 95% CI = -0.13 to -0.05; Δ = -1.59 mmol/L HCO3-, 95% CI = -2.61 to -0.56) and 16 h (Δ = -0.07 pH, 95% CI = -0.12 to -0.03; Δ = -1.95 mmol/L HCO3-, 95% CI = -2.95 to -0.95) compared with calves transported for 6 h. Calves transported between 15 and 19 d of age had a higher concentration of cholesterol and CK (Δ = 0.27 mmol/L cholesterol; 37.18 U/L CK) compared with 2- to 6-d-old calves, and calves 12 to 14 d old had greater reduction in HCO3- (Δ = -0.92 mmol/L) compared with 2- to 6-d-old calves. These findings show that transporting calves for long distances results in lower glucose concentration and suboptimal energy status, and that this effect varies based on the calf's age.