Assessment of Tooth Shade Measurement Precision and Consistency with Digital Photography Calibration System.

Objectives: To ascertain the degree of precision and repeatability inherent in the "capture to edit" digital imaging system, namely the ColorChecker Passport Photo (X-Rite, MI, USA), and to juxtapose its performance against spectrophotometric assessments utilizing the Vita Easyshade® (Vita Zahnfabrik, H Rauter GmbH & Co. KG., Bad Sackingen, Germany) for the same set of teeth. Materials and methods: Eighty participants aged 19-25 were included in the study; all of them were Croatian students at the School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb. Color measurements of the maxillary right central incisors were performed in controlled, standardized laboratory conditions. The measurements were performed on calibrated digital photographs by an experienced clinician three times in a row, and L, a, and b of CIELAB color space values were recorded. The same procedure was performed using the Vita Easyshade 5.0 spectrophotometer (Vita Zahnfabrik, Bad Säckingen, Germany) in "Tooth single" mode. Results: The Cronbach's alpha was used as a repeatability measurement, thus revealing high consistency for both methods (α=0.94-1). Correlations were moderate (Pearson r=0.44-0.66 p<0.05). Testing confirmed that digital photography is inaccurate as spectrophotometry (p<0.05). An analysis of errors of means and their standard deviations revealed consistent discrepancies with minor deviations. Conclusion: The "capture to edit" method showed high consistency (Cronbach's α=0.94-0.96), and it exhibits comparability in terms of variability, reliability, and repeatability when compared to spectrophotometric measurement (VitaShade 5, VitaZahnfabrik). Disparities between the methods are evident and anticipated, yet they do not follow a consistently linear pattern. The combination of repeatability and consistency renders the "capture to edit" method a valuable tool for enhanced color mapping, thus facilitating comparisons between digital images.

Effect of different instrumental techniques and clinical experience on shade matching.

PURPOSE: Many factors can affect the aesthetics of dental restorations, including the instrumental techniques used in shade matching, and can lead to clinical failure. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of using the cross-polarization digital photograph technique and intraoral scanners for shade matching, and also evaluate the effect of the level of clinical experience on shade matching success. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Color analysis was performed on the maxillary right central incisors of 10 subject models with Vita Easyshade. Intraoral scanning was performed 10 times on each model using TRIOS 3 and color analysis was performed from the same spot. Then cross-polarized and non-polarized photographs of the models were taken with standard settings using a gray reference card. Each shade tab of the Vita System 3D-Master scale was also photographed with two different polarization techniques. Four groups (n = 12), including prosthodontics faculty staff, postgraduate students in prosthodontics, undergraduate students, and dental technicians matched the shade tabs and the model photographs obtained with both techniques on a standardized computer screen. Finally, the color differences between the shade tabs and maxillary central incisors matched by observers from four different groups were recorded using a colorimeter, Classic Color Meter, in accordance with the CIELAB system and CIEDE2000 (ΔE00) values were calculated. The data were compared with the acceptability threshold of 1.80 for ΔE00. The data obtained from the observers were analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0 Release Notes program. Independent Samples t-test was used to compare normally distributed data according to binary groups. The level of significance was 0.05. RESULTS: A statistically significant difference was found in the shade matching on photographs taken with different techniques in postgraduate students (p = 0.02). Also, there was a statistically significant difference in success between the groups that made shade matching based on photographs obtained with the non-polarization technique (p = 0.00). The undergraduate students achieved statistically significantly lower results than all other groups (ΔE00 = 5.57 ± 1.07). The kappa value between the intraoral scanner and spectrophotometer results was 0.10, and this value was not statistically significant (p = 0.32). CONCLUSIONS: The cross-polarization technique used especially for shade matching is not superior to the non-polarization technique. Academic and clinical experience might be correlated with shade-matching success with the non-polarization technique. The clinical acceptability threshold could not be achieved in the shade matchings made on digital photographs taken with both techniques. Shade matching performed with an intraoral scanner did not yield reliable results.

An Innovative Technique of Iris Positioning Using Digital Photographs for Custom Ocular Prosthesis: A Case Report.

Trauma, cancer, and congenital abnormalities are the three main causes of eye loss. A person's personal and professional life is left with functional, aesthetic, and psychological problems when they lose one eye. A customized ocular prosthesis made of heat-cured polymethylmethacrylate can be used to restore an eye defect. Fabrication of the customized ocular prosthesis has multiple steps including scleral plank fabrication, iris positioning, and characterization. This article's primary goal is to explain a novel method for iris positioning for better cosmetic outcomes.

A Comparative Study to Check the Accuracy of Tooth Shade Selection With Standardized Digital Photographs and a Spectrophotometer.

BACKGROUND: The success of any dental prosthesis depends on aesthetics and function. A proper shade selection is a prime requisite for providing aesthetics to dental patients. PURPOSE: This study aims to compare the photographic method of shade selection with that of a digital spectrophotometer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 50 participants. The primary inclusion criterion was the presence of the maxillary left central incisor without a history of restorative or endodontic procedures. The shade of the left maxillary central incisor was determined using the VITA Easyshade V spectrophotometer (VITA Zahnfabrik, BadSäckingen, Germany) and the digital photography method for all the selected participants. The CIELAB colour space utilizes three values (L*, a*, and b*) to objectively measure colour. While the digital photography approach used Adobe Photoshop software (Adobe Systems Incorporated, San Jose, CA) to report solely the L*, a*, and b* values, the spectrophotometer reported the L*, a*, and b* values along with the actual shade. After obtaining the values of L*, a*, and b*, ΔE, which is their difference, was calculated using a standard formula. Statistical analysis was carried out by using Student's t-test and proportion z-test. RESULTS: When the comparison of the L*a*b* values was done, Student's t-test showed similar (P>0.05) L(t=0.16, P=0.872), a (t=0.52, P=0.607), and b (t=0.23, P=0.820) values between the two groups; that is, they did not differ significantly or showed perfect matching. There was agreement (ΔE≤2) in 42 (84.0%) cases and disagreement (ΔE>2) in eight (16.0%) cases. The proportion z-test showed an agreement of 84.0%, which was statistically highly significant (z=20.44, P<0.001). CONCLUSION: The true shade of the teeth can be depicted using standardized digital images.

Evaluation of the changes in waistline asymmetry using digital photography in adolescents with idiopathic thoracolumbar/lumbar scoliosis after corrective surgery.

PURPOSE: Waist line asymmetry is a major cosmetic concern in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). The primary surgical goal in patients with AIS is to correct spinal deformities and prevent further progression while maintaining global alignment. Additionally, an important objective of surgical treatment is to address physical appearance by reducing asymmetry. This study aimed to evaluate changes in waistline asymmetry using digital photographs in adolescents with thoracolumbar/lumbar (TL/L) scoliosis who underwent corrective surgery. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the data of patients with Lenke types 5C and 6C AIS who underwent posterior fusion surgery with at least 2 years of follow-up. Waist line asymmetry was assessed using digital photography. The waist angle ratio (WAR), waist height angle (WHA), and waistline depth ratio (WLDR) were measured pre- and postoperatively. Radiographic parameters and the revised 22-item Scoliosis Research Society Questionnaire (SRS-22r) were also evaluated. RESULTS: Forty-two patients (40 females and 2 males; 34 with type 5C and 8 with type 6C) were included in the study. The WAR, WHA, and WLDR significantly improved after surgery (0.873 → 0.977, - 2.0° → 1.4°, and 0.321 → 0.899, respectively). Every waistline parameter moderately correlated with the apical vertebral translation of the TL/L curve (WAR: r = - 0.398, WHA: r = - 0.442, and WLDR: r = - 0.692), whereas no correlations were observed with the TL/L curve magnitude. No correlations were observed between the photographic parameters and SRS-22r scores. CONCLUSION: Lateral displacement of the apical vertebra on the TL/L curve correlated with waistline asymmetry. Preoperative waistline asymmetry improved with scoliosis correction. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 4.

A step-by-step method to quantify coloration with digital photography.

Coloration is often used in biological studies, for example when studying social signaling or antipredator defense. Yet, few detailed and standardized methods are available to measure coloration using digital photography. Here we provide a step-by-step guide to help researchers quantify coloration from digital images. We first identify the do's and don'ts of taking pictures for coloration analysis. We then describe how to i) extract reflectance values with the software ImageJ; ii) fit and apply linearization equations to reflectance values; iii) scale and select the areas of interest in ImageJ; iv) standardize pictures; and v) binarize and measure the proportion of different colors in an area of interest. We apply our methodological protocol to digital pictures of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta), but the approach could be easily adapted to any species. More specifically, we wished to calculate the proportion of red and yellow on the neck and head of turtles. With this protocol, our main aims are to make coloration analyses with digital photography:•More accessible to researchers without a background in photography.•More consistent between studies.

In Vitro Evaluation of Accuracy and Reliability of Tooth Shade Selection Using Different Digital Instruments.

Introduction Managing tooth shade is a significant challenge in aesthetic dentistry, especially for anterior restorations. Accurate shade assessment, combined with tailored treatment strategies and effective communication, is crucial. To improve the precision and reliability of aesthetic dental treatments, new shade-matching technologies have emerged. Current clinical methods for determining tooth shade utilize both visual assessments and instrumental techniques. The current study aimed to assess and compare the reliability and accuracy of four digital methods of tooth shade matching. Materials and methods This study utilized a 3D-printed resin upper arch model with tooth preparation done on tooth 11. An intraoral scanner was employed to scan and design the tooth, followed by the fabrication of 30 zirconia crowns using computer-aided design and computer-assisted manufacturing (CAD/CAM). The assessment of shade matching involved four digital photometric methodologies (group 1: twin flash + digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera (DT), group 2: ring flash + DSLR camera (DR), group 3: smartphone camera (SMART), group 4: intraoral scanner (IOS)) with Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIEL*a*b*) values determined through Adobe Photoshop transformation. Accuracy (ΔE) was calculated and a specific shade using Vitablocs Mark II 3D-Master served as the standard. CIEL*a*b* data (where L = lightness, a and b = chromaticity coordinates) from four cohorts were analyzed in SPSS 26.0 for reliability, with intraclass correlation. The Kruskal-Wallis test and Spearman's correlation assessed reliability, while a one-sample t-test assessed accuracy, comparing values to clinical thresholds (p<0.05). Results The intraclass correlation revealed noteworthy variations in the L*, a*, and b* values, spanning from 0.730 to 0.994, 0.885 to 0.992, and 0.881 to 0.997, respectively. Intraoral scanners demonstrated high accuracy (ΔE = 5.8), while the SMART method showed the lowest precision (ΔE = 12.09). Twin flash with DSLR (TF+DSLR) and ring flash with DSLR (RF+DSLR) displayed comparable precision, with ΔE values of 10.90 and 10.97 respectively. Conclusion The smartphone exhibited the least precision, displaying notable discrepancies in all CIEL*a*b* metrics when compared to the manufacturer-specified shades. Conversely, the intraoral scanner demonstrated higher accuracy and reliability compared to the other groups, with no discernible variation in any of the CIEL*a*b* values from the manufacturer's standard.

Comparison of the colour accuracy of a single-lens reflex camera and a smartphone camera in a clinical context.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the colour accuracy of digital photographs captured by a single-lens reflex (SLR) camera and a smartphone camera in a clinical setting. METHODS: Dentate subjects were recruited, and their maxillary anterior teeth were photographed along with a colour target and a dental shade guide. There were eight groups: Group 1: SLR camera with a 100 mm macro-lens and a ring-flash (SLRC); Group 2: SLRC with a polarizer; Group 3: SLRC with white-balance calibration; Group 4: SLRC with a polarizer and white-balance calibration. Groups 5 to 8 were similar to Groups 1 to 4, except a smartphone camera and an external light source (SC) were used. The CIE LAB coordinates of the colour target, shade guide, and centre of the maxillary right central incisor (tooth 11) in the digital photographs were retrieved. The colour difference ΔE=[(ΔL*)2+(Δa*)2+(Δb*)2]1/2 to the reference colour coordinates or the reading of the dental spectrophotometer was calculated. The results were analysed by the Kruskal-Wallis test at α=0.05 with Bonferroni correction. RESULTS: Thirty-nine subjects were photographed. SLRC with a polarizer showed the largest ΔE in this study (P<0.001). When capturing tooth 11, SLRC with calibrated white-balance resulted in the smallest ΔE in this study (P<0.001), and the use of a polarizer and/or calibrated white-balance did not result in a smaller ΔE than that of SC alone (P>0.001). CONCLUSION: Calibration for white-balance is recommended for the SLRC. The use of a polarizer does not show an improvement in colour accuracy. SC alone may be sufficient for intraoral photography. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: When capturing intraoral photography using a single-lens reflex camera, it is recommended to calibrate the white-balance. The use of a polarizer does not significantly improve colour accuracy. However, a smartphone camera with an external light source can serve as a viable alternative.

Presence of the cloud cover and elevation angle of the sun affect measurements of eggshell coloration and patterning obtained from calibrated digital images.

Calibrated digital photography is frequently used in studies focusing on avian eggshell appearance to measure colour and pattern features. Photographs are often taken in natural light conditions, yet little is known to what extent the normalisation process is able to control for varied light. Here, we photographed 36 blown eggs of the Japanese quail Coturnix japonica at five different elevation angles of the sun on both sunny and uniformly overcast days alongside grey standards. We normalised and processed the photographs in the MICA Toolbox software and checked how much noise was introduced by different natural light conditions to the colour and pattern measurements of the same set of eggs. Our results indicate that natural variation of light conditions affects eggshell colour and pattern measurements obtained by means of calibrated digital photography. Depending on a trait, the elevation angle of the sun had similar or even greater effect on the measurement than the presence of the cloud cover. Furthermore, measurements taken in cloudy conditions were more repeatable than those taken in sunny conditions. Based on the results, we propose practical guidelines regarding measuring colour and pattern of eggshells using calibrated digital photography in outdoor conditions.

Use of Digital Images as a Low-Cost System to Estimate Surface Optical Parameters in the Ocean.

Ocean color is the result of absorption and scattering, as light interacts with the water and the optically active constituents. The measurement of ocean color changes enables monitoring of these constituents (dissolved or particulate materials). The main objective of this research is to use digital images to estimate the light attenuation coefficient (Kd), the Secchi disk depth (ZSD), and the chlorophyll a (Chla) concentration and to optically classify plots of seawater using the criteria proposed by Jerlov and Forel using digital images captured at the ocean surface. The database used in this study was obtained from seven oceanographic cruises performed in oceanic and coastal areas. Three approaches were developed for each parameter: a general approach that can be applied under any optical condition, one for oceanic conditions, and another for coastal conditions. The results of the coastal approach showed higher correlations between the modeled and validation data, with rp values of 0.80 for Kd, 0.90 for ZSD, 0.85 for Chla, 0.73 for Jerlov, and 0.95 for Forel-Ule. The oceanic approach failed to detect significant changes in a digital photograph. The most precise results were obtained when images were captured at 45° (n = 22; Fr cal=11.02>Fr crit=5.99). Therefore, to ensure precise results, the angle of photography is key. This methodology can be used in citizen science programs to estimate ZSD, Kd, and the Jerlov scale.

Skin ageing: Clinical aspects and in vivo microscopic patterns observed with reflectance confocal microscopy and optical coherence tomography.

Few studies have combined high-resolution, non-invasive imaging, such as standardized clinical images, reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM) and optical coherence tomography (OCT), for age-related skin change characterization according to age groups. This study aimed to correlate clinical manifestations of ageing with skin cytoarchitectural background observed with high-resolution, non-invasive imaging according to age-related skin pattern distribution. A set of 140 non-pathological facial skin images were retrospectively retrieved from a research database. Subjects, aged between 20 and 89, were divided into 7 age groups. Clinical features were explored with VISIA, including hyperpigmentation, skin texture, wrinkles, pores and red areas, quantified and expressed as automated absolute scores. Previously described RCM and OCT epidermal and dermal features associated with ageing were investigated. All features were assessed for distribution and correlation among age groups. Significant direct correlations between age and clinical features were proven for cutaneous hyperpigmentation, skin texture, wrinkles and red areas. As age advances, RCM epidermal irregular honeycomb and mottled pigmentation are more frequently observed and collagen is more frequently coarse, huddled and curled, while the epidermis in OCT is thickened and the dermal density is decreased with more disrupted collagen fibres. RCM and OCT feature changes correlate directly and indirectly as well as correlating directly and indirectly with standardized clinical images. Clinical manifestations of ageing correlate with skin cytoarchitectural background observed with RCM and OCT. In conclusion, complimentary information between standardized clinical images and high-resolution, non-invasive imaging will assist in the development of future studies dedicated to skin ageing assessment and treatment effectiveness.

The role of artificial intelligence technology in the care of diabetic foot ulcers: the past, the present, and the future.

Foot ulcers are common complications of diabetes mellitus and substantially increase the morbidity and mortality due to this disease. Wound care by regular monitoring of the progress of healing with clinical review of the ulcers, dressing changes, appropriate antibiotic therapy for infection and proper offloading of the ulcer are the cornerstones of the management of foot ulcers. Assessing the progress of foot ulcers can be a challenge for the clinician and patient due to logistic issues such as regular attendance in the clinic. Foot clinics are often busy and because of manpower issues, ulcer reviews can be delayed with detrimental effects on the healing as a result of a lack of appropriate and timely changes in management. Wound photographs have been historically useful to assess the progress of diabetic foot ulcers over the past few decades. Mobile phones with digital cameras have recently revolutionized the capture of foot ulcer images. Patients can send ulcer photographs to diabetes care professionals electronically for remote monitoring, largely avoiding the logistics of patient transport to clinics with a reduction on clinic pressures. Artificial intelligence-based technologies have been developed in recent years to improve this remote monitoring of diabetic foot ulcers with the use of mobile apps. This is expected to make a huge impact on diabetic foot ulcer care with further research and development of more accurate and scientific technologies in future. This clinical update review aims to compile evidence on this hot topic to empower clinicians with the latest developments in the field.

Evaluation of the marginal adaptation and gingival status of full-crown restorations using an intraoral camera.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the usefulness of intraoral photographs, acquired with a household intraoral camera operating in conventional, calibrated, and polarized modes, with clinical examinations for assessing the marginal adaptation and gingival status of full-crown restorations. METHODS: Clinical examinations were performed by a prosthodontist who classified the marginal adaptation of full-crown restorations according to FDI World Dental Federation criteria, and a periodontal expert who classified gingival status according to the Modified Gingival Index (MGI). The margins and gingival status of the conventional, calibration, and polarization groups of full-crown restorations were independently assessed by three evaluators who obtained photographs using an intraoral camera. Cases where at least two of three assessors were in agreement were analyzed using Cohen's kappa coefficient and the chi-square test, and the sensitivity and specificity were calculated. RESULTS: The conventional, calibration, and polarization groups differed significantly in marginal and gingival status of full-crown restorations. In the calibration group, there was good agreement between the camera-based and oral clinical examinations in terms of the gingival status of full-crown restorations (kappa = 0.945), with 100% sensitivity and 91.67% specificity; this was also the case in the polarization group with respect to the margins of full-crown restorations (kappa = 0.917, sensitivity = 97.22%, specificity = 94.44%). CONCLUSIONS: An intraoral camera with black and white calibrated images is useful to assess the gingival status of full-crown restorations. Polarization mode can be used to assess the marginal adaptation of full-crown restorations. The camera is a feasible and valid diagnostic aid.

El uso correcto del teléfono inteligente en la fotografía estética del área facial: consejos y trucos / The correct use of the smartphone in aesthetic photography for the facial area: tips & tricks

Introducción y objetivo: Una galería fotográfica estandarizada con alto valor clínico depende de una correcta técnica, adecuada selección de tecnología y el entendimiento de ambas por el médico. Los teléfonos celulares inteligentes y sus cámaras digitales tienen ventajas de versatilidad, omni-presencia y accesibilidad con el mismo nivel de calidad requerida para fotografía clínica; también ofrecen una alternativa a un costo razonable y son más prácticos, sin embargo, presentan algunas limitantes. El objetivo de este artículo es proponer estrategias para sobreponerse ante estas limitantes y así ajustarse a las normas de estandarización en la fotografía clínica. Material y método: Revisamos la literatura actual sobre uso de teléfonos celulares con cámara digital en Medicina, tomando artículos con múltiples guías sobre estandarización y recomendaciones para fotografía clínica. Buscamos los manuales y las características de un teléfono inteligente iPhone 8s Plus® y una cámara Digital SLR (Single Lens Reflex) Sony® SLT A55V, estudiamos sus características y diferencias, Resultados: Comparando ambas tecnologías, identificamos las diferencias y sus limitantes individuales, con las cuales proponemos una serie de recomendaciones para obtener toma fotográfica mediante teléfono inteligente con cámara digital de tipo y calidad científica dentro de los parámetros de estandarización actuales. Conclusiones: El teléfono inteligente con cámara digital es un dispositivo electrónico versátil, portátil, útil y sencillo de usar para tomas fotográficas de alta calidad científica, siempre y cuando se cuente con un adecuado nivel de entendimiento de la tecnología en uso para superar sus limitaciones sin riesgo de sesgo. (AU)

Background and objective: A standardized photographic gallery with high clinical value depends on a correct technique, adequate selection of technology and the understanding of these by the physician. Smartphones and their digital cameras have advantages of versatility, omnipresence and accessibility with the same level of quality required for clinical photography, they also offer an alternative at a reasonable cost and being more practical, however, they have some limitations. The objective of the paper is to propose strategies to overcome these limitations and thus remain within the guidelines of standardization in clinical photography. Methods: The current literature on the use of smartphones with digital cameras in Medicine is described; articles with multiple guidelines on standardization and recommendations regarding clinical photography were taken. The manuals and characteristics of an iPhone 8s Plus® smartphone and a Sony® SLT A55V Digital SLR (Single Lens Reflex) camera were searched, their characteristics, differences were studied, Results: Comparing both technologies, the differences and their individual limitations were identified with which a series of recommendations were proposed which allow to obtain photographic shots by means of a smartphone with a digital camera of scientific type and quality within the current standardization parameters. Conclusions: Smartphone with a digital camera is a versatile, portable, useful and easy-to-use electronic device for high-quality scientific photographic taking, as long as you have an adequate level of understanding of the technology in use to overcome its limitations without risk of bias. (AU)

Regular School Sport versus Dedicated Physical Activities for Body Posture-A Prospective Controlled Study Assessing the Sagittal Plane in 7-10-Year-Old Children.

Body posture develops during the growing period and can be documented using trunk photography. The study aims to evaluate the body posture in children aged 7-10 years undergoing a dedicated physical activities program versus regular school sport. A total of 400 children, randomly chosen from a cohort of 9300 participating in a local scoliosis screening program, were evaluated twice at a one-year interval. A total of 167 children were involved in regular school sport (control group), while 233 received both school sport and a dedicated physical activities program (intervention group). Standardized photographic habitual body posture examination was performed at enrollment (T0) and one-year after (T1). Sacral slope (SS), lumbar lordosis (LL), thoracic kyphosis (TK), chest inclination (CI), and head protraction (HP) were measured. At T0, the body posture parameters did not differ between groups. At T1 in the controls, all five parameters tended to deteriorate (insignificant): SS p = 0.758, LL p = 0.38, TK p = 0.328, CI p = 0.081, and HP p = 0.106. At T1 in the intervention group, the SS decreased (p = 0.001), the LL tended to decrease (p = 0.0602), and the TK, CI, and HP remained unaltered. At T1, the SS and LL parameter differed between groups statistically (p = 0.0002 and p = 0.0064, respectively) and clinically (2.52° and 2.58°, respectively). In 7-10-year-old children, participation in dedicated physical activities tends to improve their body posture compared to regular school sport.

Soil profile photograph dataset from central Mexico to delineate horizons and quantify coarse fragments.

This database consists of a digital photograph set of soil profiles from the physiographic provinces of the Trans-Mexican Neovolcanic Axis and Sierra Madre del Sur of central Mexico. Although the official and government databases of soil profiles from Mexico do not contain the percentage of coarse fragments (stoniness), they contain soil profile photographs from which the percentage of coarse fragments can be extracted. The dataset has two data source types: (a) Soil profile photographs taken in the field and (b) soil profile photographs from the official database of the government of Mexico. The images were analyzed using the Gallegos-Bautista (GB) method. In the GB method, the horizon delineation of the soil profiles includes preprocessing the profile image with k-means segmentation; conversion of the preprocessed image to CIE L*a*b* (lightness, red/green value, blue/yellow value) and HSV (hue, saturation, value) color systems; k-means segmentation of HSV and CIE L*a*b* images, delineation of horizons, and clarity and topography determinations of the outlined horizons. The soil groups studied correspond to the Andosol, Cambisol, Luvisol, Alisol, Kastanozem, Phaeozem, Umbrisol, and Solonchak groups, some of which had contrasting color horizons, allowing us to identify how to follow the analysis of the digital images according to the horizons of the soil profiles.

Rapid Body Color Change Provides Lizards with Facultative Crypsis in the Eyes of Their Avian Predators.

AbstractColor change serves many antipredator functions and may allow animals to better match environments or disrupt outlines to prevent detection. Rapid color change could potentially provide camouflage to animals that frequently move among microhabitats. Determining the adaptiveness of whole-animal rapid color changes in natural habitats with respect to predator visual systems would greatly broaden our fundamental understanding of the evolution of rapid color change. We tested whether whole-body color change provides water anoles (Anolis aquaticus) with camouflage against avian predators and whether these rapid changes allow them to shift between environment matching and edge disruption. We manipulated A. aquaticus placement in natural microhabitats and used digital image analysis to quantify color matching, pattern matching, and edge disruption produced by microhabitat-induced color change. Color change reduced lizard detectability to predators in microhabitat-specific ways. Environment matching was favored when lizards were in solid-colored microhabitats, regardless of exposure to predators. Edge disruption was instead induced by high exposure and varied by body region. We provide the first evidence that rapid color change permits a tetrapod to flexibly employ the most optimal camouflaging strategy by form (e.g., color matching vs. edge disruption) to minimize detection in the eyes of its predators.

Digital photographic technique for the production of an artificial eye.

The use of hand painting an iris button using oil paint remains the conventional method of artificial eye manufacturing. The authors found that replacing this technique with a digital photograph taken of a patient's unaffected eye offers several advantages over the conventional method but the process from capture to print must be standardised and colour accurate. The authors of this paper suggest a tried and tested formulated photographic process of capture and printing prior to polymerisation. It discusses issues that can arise and how these can be overcome in order to achieve a high-quality print that can be used to produce a 'life like' ocular prosthesis.

A Digital Method to Fabricate the Ocular Portion of An Orbital Prosthesis with A Smartphone Camera, Color Calibration and Digital Printing.

Conventional techniques described in the literature for the manufacture of ocular prostheses are time-consuming since they involve manual work. The use of technologies could improve this laborious process, providing better esthetic outcomes. This technique describes how to manufacture the ocular portion of an orbital prosthesis using a smartphone camera, color calibration with a tooth shade guide, and digital printing. This method allows clinicians to fabricate customized ocular prosthesis by using a photograph of the patient's eye, thus eliminating the need for hand-painting and manual work, and reducing fabrication time.