Competition through ritualized aggressive interactions between sympatric colonies in solitary foraging neotropical ants.

Understanding the structure of food competition between conspecifics in their natural settings is paramount to addressing more complex questions in ecology, evolution, and conservation. While much research on ants focuses on aggressive food competition between large and foraging trail-using societies, we lack a thorough understanding of inter-colony competition in socially less derived, solitarily foraging species. To fill this gap, we explored the activity of ten neighbouring colonies of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps, monitoring 2513 foraging trips of hundreds of workers and all its inter-individual interactions. We found that, on encountering, workers from different colonies rarely engaged in aggressive fights but instead avoided each other or performed ritualised agonistic bouts. We discovered that during foraging trips, a few workers within each colony repeatedly rubbed their gaster on the substrate, a behaviour not observed in the field before. We propose that workers use this behaviour to mark the foraging area and mark more frequently in its periphery. Only 25% of the individuals specialised in this behaviour, and we hypothesise that the specialisation results from the history of interactions and experience of individual foragers. Our study suggests that workers of contiguous D. quadriceps colonies engage in low-risk conflict, mainly displaying ritualised behaviours. As these small societies mainly rely on tiny, unpredictably scattered, albeit abundant in the environment, arthropod prey, and not on persistent food sources, they do not aggressively defend exclusive foraging territories. On the other hand, colonies rely on large overlapping foraging areas to sustain their survival and growth, most often tolerating foragers from nearby colonies. We discuss whether this type of competitive interaction is expected in all solitary foraging species.

Exploring the neuroprotective potential of antimicrobial peptides from Dinoponera quadriceps venom against pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in vivo.

Epilepsy affects around 50 million people worldwide and 30% of patients have difficulty controlling the disease. The search for substances that can fill the existing gaps in the treatment of epilepsy is of great importance. Arthropod venoms are promising sources for this purpose due to the presence of small peptides that modulate the activity of ion channels and neuron receptors. The aim of this study was to investigate dinoponeratoxins from the Dinoponera quadriceps ant venom (M-PONTX-Dq3a, M-PONTX-Dq3b and M-PONTX-Dq3c) as potential anticonvulsants. We evaluated them in a seizure model induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) in male swiss mice. Interestingly, intraperitoneal treatment with each peptide increased the time until the first seizure and the percentage of survival, with M-PONTX-Dq3b showing the best results. M-PONTX-Dq3a was discarded due to the appearance of some signs of toxicity with the increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the striatum. Both, M-PONTX-Dq3b and M-PONTX-Dq3c decreased iNOS and TNF-α in the hippocampus. Notably, M-PONTX-Dq3c treatment decreased the levels of MDA and nitrite in the cortex and hippocampus. Our results indicate that, M-PONTX-Dq3b and M-PONTX-Dq3c have anticonvulsant activity and exhibit anti-inflammatory effects in epilepsy, offering new perspectives for biopharmaceutical development.

Effect from dinoponeratoxin M-PONTXDq3a arginine and lysine substituted analogues against Staphylococcus aureus strains.

The growing incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections is associated with increased mortality rates, which has generated interest in the development of antimicrobial peptides (AMP), such as those found in the giant ant Dinoponera quadríceps. In order to improve the net positive charge and the antibacterial activity of the AMP, amino acids with positive side chain single substituted analogues have been proposed, mainly arginine or lysine. The present work aims to study the antimicrobial activity of the analogues of M-PONTX-Dq3a, a 23 amino acid AMP identified in the D. quadriceps venom. M-PONTX-Dq3a[1-15], a fragment containing the 15 central amino acids, and eight derivatives of single arginine or lysine substituted analogues were proposed. The antimicrobial activity of peptides was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 P (MSSA) and ATCC 33591 (MRSA) strains, followed by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum lethal concentration (MLC), and minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) measurement. The membrane permeability was then assessed via crystal violet assay and flow cytometry analysis. The effect of exposure time on microbial viability (Time-Kill) was evaluated. Finally, ultrastructural alterations were evaluated through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Both arginine-substituted peptides [Arg]3M-PONTX-Dq3a[1-15] and [Arg]4M-PONTX-Dq3a[1-15], showed lowest MIC and MLC values (each 0.78 µM). In the biofilm formation assays, the peptide [Arg]3M-PONTX-Dq3a [1-15] showed MBIC of 3.12 µM against the two tested strains. Both peptides were able to alter the membrane permeability approximately by 80%. The treatment with MIC was able to eliminate bacteria after 2 h of contact on the other hand, treatment with half of the MIC, the population of both bacterial strains remained constant for up to 12 h, indicating a possible bacteriostatic effect. The SEM results showed that the treatment with the lowest concentration (0.78 µM) of both peptides caused disruption of the cell membrane, destabilization of the intercellular interaction and the CLM of [Arg]4M-PONTX-Dq3a [1-15] resulted in the complete eradication of the bacteria. Thus, this study describes two AMPs active against MSSA and MRSA and also inhibits the biofilm formation of these stains. This study finds [Arg]3M-PONTX-Dq3a[1-15] and [Arg]4M-PONTX-Dq3a[1-15] as alternative substances to treat resistant and/or biofilm-forming strains.

Seasonality effect on ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) activity in an ecotonal environment in the state of Piauí, Brazil

Abstract This study aimed to compare the activity of ants during the rainy and dry seasons in a transitional environment (ecotone) at the interface of Cerrado and Caatinga biomes situated in the state of Piauí, where studies of local ant fauna are still incipient. The research was carried out at Floriano, state of Piauí, Brazil. Ants were sampled during the rainy season in December 2018 and during the dry season in June 2019. Three parallel transects were established at least 100 m apart. At each point, three sampling methods were used, with attractive baits placed on the trees and ground, and pitfall traps on the ground. Thirty-one ant species belonging to 14 genera and five subfamilies were collected, with 27 recorded in the rainy season and 17 in the dry season. The only species reported with the three collection methods and the two seasons was Camponotus crassus Mayr, 1862. Seven ant species sampled in this study are new reports for the state of Piauí. There was a significant difference in the average number of ants and the composition of the assemblages between the rainy and dry seasons. We demonstrate that the activity of ants is influenced by seasonality, corroborating our hypotheses. This is only the second study on ant diversity in the state of Piauí, and more studies are necessary to understand the processes and factors which regulate the activity patterns of ants in ecotonal situations like those observed in this region.

Seasonality effect on ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) activity in an ecotonal environment in the state of Piauí, Brazil

This study aimed to compare the activity of ants during the rainy and dry seasons in a transitional environment (ecotone) at the interface of Cerrado and Caatinga biomes situated in the state of Piauí, where studies of local ant fauna are still incipient. The research was carried out at Floriano, state of Piauí, Brazil. Ants were sampled during the rainy season in December 2018 and during the dry season in June 2019. Three parallel transects were established at least 100 m apart. At each point, three sampling methods were used, with attractive baits placed on the trees and ground, and pitfall traps on the ground. Thirty-one ant species belonging to 14 genera and five subfamilies were collected, with 27 recorded in the rainy season and 17 in the dry season. The only species reported with the three collection methods and the two seasons was Camponotus crassus Mayr, 1862. Seven ant species sampled in this study are new reports for the state of Piauí. There was a significant difference in the average number of ants and the composition of the assemblages between the rainy and dry seasons. We demonstrate that the activity of ants is influenced by seasonality, corroborating our hypotheses. This is only the second study on ant diversity in the state of Piauí, and more studies are necessary to understand the processes and factors which regulate the activity patterns of ants in ecotonal situations like those observed in this region.(AU)

Antimicrobial activity of synthetic Dq-3162, a 28-residue ponericin G-like dinoponeratoxin from the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps venom, against carbapenem-resistant bacteria.

The predatory giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps is one of the largest venomous ants on Earth. The venom of D. quadriceps comprises a rich blend of bioactive peptides that includes structures related to at least five classes of antimicrobial peptides. In the present study, two representative synthetic peptides, sDq-2562 and sDq-3162, belonging to the ponericin-like dinoponeratoxin family, were evaluated for their microbicide activity against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The most effective peptide, the 28-residue sDq-3162 displayed a significant bacteriostatic and bactericidal effect with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) between 5 µM and 10 µM (15.6 µg mL-1 and 31.2 µg mL-1), according to the strain of drug-resistant bacteria tested. In combination with conventional antibiotics, sDq-3162 displayed in vitro synergistic effects, reducing the MICs of antibiotics for more than 2-log against clinical isolates of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with low cytotoxicity to human erythrocytes, in vitro. Since the development of molecules to circumvent the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is demanding, ant venom peptides arise as useful molecular resources to contribute with the antimicrobial arsenal and therapeutic strategies to fight clinically relevant microbial infections.

Antifungal In Vitro Activity of Pilosulin- and Ponericin-Like Peptides from the Giant Ant Dinoponera quadriceps and Synergistic Effects with Antimycotic Drugs.

Venoms from ants comprise a rich source of bioactive peptides, including antimicrobial peptides. From the proteome and peptidome of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps venom, members of five known classes of antimicrobial peptides were disclosed (e.g., dermaseptin-, defensin-, ICK-, pilosulin- and ponericin-like types). Based on comparative analysis, these family members have structural determinants that indicate they could display antimicrobial activities. In previous works, pilosulin- and ponericin-like peptides were demonstrated to be active against bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Herein, the antifungal activity of ponericin- and pilosulin-like peptides were assessed, aiming at the expansion of the knowledge about AMPs in predatory ants and the development of new microbicide strategies to deal with difficult-to-treat fungal infections. Synthetic pilosulin- (Dq-2562, Dq-1503, and Dq-1319) and ponericin-like (Dq-3162) peptides were evaluated for their fungicide and fungistatic activities against different species of Candida, including a drug-resistant clinical strain. The MICs and MLCs were determined for all peptides individually and in combination with general antifungal drugs by the microdilution method. The time-kill kinetic curves were set up by means of a luminescent reagent, of which the light signal is proportional to the number of viable cells. The candicidal synergism observed by the combination of subinhibitory concentrations of peptides and general antimycotic drugs were quantified by the checkerboard test and fluorescent dye permeation assay. The influence of ergosterol on the antifungal activity was verified by supplementation of culture medium. The pilosulin- (Dq-2562 and Dq-1503) and ponericin-like (Dq-3162) were the most active peptides, displaying a broad spectrum of antifungal activity in vitro, with MICs in the range of 0.625 to 10 µM. The combination of peptides and conventional antimycotic drugs displayed a synergistic reduction in the MIC values of individual peptides and drugs, while soluble ergosterol in the culture medium increased the MICs. The fungicide and fungistatic activity of the individual peptides and peptides in combination with antimycotics were time-dependent with a rapid onset of action and long-lasting effect, which involved membrane disruption as an underlying mechanism of their action. Altogether, pilosulin- and ponericin-like peptides from the giant ant D. quadriceps venom display a broad-spectrum of candicidal activity, what allows their inclusion in the row of the antifungal peptides and gives support for further studies on the development of strategies to fight candidiasis.

Comprehensive analysis of peptides and low molecular weight components of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps venom.

Ants (Hymenoptera, Apocrita, Aculeata, Formicoidea) comprise a well-succeeded group of animals. Like bees and wasps, ants are mostly venomous, having a sting system to deliver a mixture of bioactive organic compounds and peptides. The predatory giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps belongs to the subfamily Ponerinae that includes one of the largest known ant species in the world. In the present study, low molecular weight compounds and peptides were identified by online peptide mass fingerprint. These include neuroactive biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, and dopamine), monoamine alkaloid (phenethylamine), free amino acids (e.g. glutamic acid and proline), free thymidine, and cytosine. To the best of our knowledge, most of these components are described for the first time in an ant venom. Multifunctional dinoponeratoxin peptide variants (pilosulin- and ponericin-like peptides) were characterized that possess antimicrobial, hemolytic, and histamine-releasing properties. These venom components, particularly peptides, might synergistically contribute to the overall venom activity and toxicity, for immobilizing live prey, and for defending D. quadriceps against aggressors, predators, and potential microbial infection.

Comprehensive analysis of peptides and low molecular weight components of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps venom

Ants (Hymenoptera, Apocrita, Aculeata, Formicoidea) comprise a well-succeeded group of animals. Like bees and wasps, ants are mostly venomous, having a sting system to deliver a mixture of bioactive organic compounds and peptides. The predatory giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps belongs to the subfamily Ponerinae that include one of the largest known ant species in the world. In the present study, low molecular weight compounds and peptides were identified by on-line peptide mass fingerprint. These include neuroactive biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, and dopamine), monoamine alkaloid (phenethylamine), free amino acids (e.g., glutamic acid and proline), free thymidine and cytosine. To the best of our knowledge most of these components are described for the first time in an ant venom. Multifunctional dinoponeratoxin peptides variants (pilosulin- and ponericin-like peptides) were characterized that possess antimicrobial, hemolytic, and histamine-releasing properties. These venom components, particularly peptides, might synergistically contribute to the overall venom activity and toxicity, for immobilizing live prey, and defending D. quadriceps against aggressors, predators and potential microbial infection.

Bottom-Up Proteomic Analysis of Polypeptide Venom Components of the Giant Ant Dinoponera Quadriceps.

Ant species have specialized venom systems developed to sting and inoculate a biological cocktail of organic compounds, including peptide and polypeptide toxins, for the purpose of predation and defense. The genus Dinoponera comprises predatory giant ants that inoculate venom capable of causing long-lasting local pain, involuntary shaking, lymphadenopathy, and cardiac arrhythmias, among other symptoms. To deepen our knowledge about venom composition with regard to protein toxins and their roles in the chemical-ecological relationship and human health, we performed a bottom-up proteomics analysis of the crude venom of the giant ant D. quadriceps, popularly known as the "false" tocandiras. For this purpose, we used two different analytical approaches: (i) gel-based proteomics approach, wherein the crude venom was resolved by denaturing sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and all protein bands were excised for analysis; (ii) solution-based proteomics approach, wherein the crude venom protein components were directly fragmented into tryptic peptides in solution for analysis. The proteomic data that resulted from these two methodologies were compared against a previously annotated transcriptomic database of D. quadriceps, and subsequently, a homology search was performed for all identified transcript products. The gel-based proteomics approach unequivocally identified nine toxins of high molecular mass in the venom, as for example, enzymes [hyaluronidase, phospholipase A1, dipeptidyl peptidase and glucose dehydrogenase/flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) quinone] and diverse venom allergens (homologous of the red fire ant Selenopsis invicta) and venom-related proteins (major royal jelly-like). Moreover, the solution-based proteomics revealed and confirmed the presence of several hydrolases, oxidoreductases, proteases, Kunitz-like polypeptides, and the less abundant inhibitor cysteine knot (ICK)-like (knottin) neurotoxins and insect defensin. Our results showed that the major components of the D. quadriceps venom are toxins that are highly likely to damage cell membranes and tissue, to cause neurotoxicity, and to induce allergic reactions, thus, expanding the knowledge about D. quadriceps venom composition and its potential biological effects on prey and victims.

Comprehensive analysis of peptides and low molecular weight components of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps venom.

Ants (Hymenoptera, Apocrita, Aculeata, Formicoidea) comprise a well-succeeded group of animals. Like bees and wasps, ants are mostly venomous, having a sting system to deliver a mixture of bioactive organic compounds and peptides. The predatory giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps belongs to the subfamily Ponerinae that include one of the largest known ant species in the world. In the present study, low molecular weight compounds and peptides were identified by on-line peptide mass fingerprint. These include neuroactive biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, and dopamine), monoamine alkaloid (phenethylamine), free amino acids (e.g., glutamic acid and proline), free thymidine and cytosine. To the best of our knowledge most of these components are described for the first time in an ant venom. Multifunctional dinoponeratoxin peptides variants (pilosulin- and ponericin-like peptides) were characterized that possess antimicrobial, hemolytic, and histamine-releasing properties. These venom components, particularly peptides, might synergistically contribute to the overall venom activity and toxicity, for immobilizing live prey, and defending D. quadriceps against aggressors, predators and potential microbial infection.

Bottom-up proteomic analysis of polypeptide venom components of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps

nt species have specialized venom systems developed to sting and inoculate a biological cocktail of organic compounds, including peptide and polypeptide toxins, for the purpose of predation and defense. The genus Dinoponera comprises predatory giant ants that inoculate venom capable of causing long-lasting local pain, involuntary shaking, lymphadenopathy, and cardiac arrhythmias, among other symptoms. To deepen our knowledge about venom composition with regard to protein toxins and their roles in the chemical–ecological relationship and human health, we performed a bottom-up proteomics analysis of the crude venom of the giant ant D. quadriceps, popularly known as the "false" tocandiras. For this purpose, we used two different analytical approaches: (i) gel-based proteomics approach, wherein the crude venom was resolved by denaturing sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and all protein bands were excised for analysis; (ii) solution-based proteomics approach, wherein the crude venom protein components were directly fragmented into tryptic peptides in solution for analysis. The proteomic data that resulted from these two methodologies were compared against a previously annotated transcriptomic database of D. quadriceps, and subsequently, a homology search was performed for all identified transcript products. The gel-based proteomics approach unequivocally identified nine toxins of high molecular mass in the venom, as for example, enzymes [hyaluronidase, phospholipase A1, dipeptidyl peptidase and glucose dehydrogenase/flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) quinone] and diverse venom allergens (homologous of the red fire ant Selenopsis invicta) and venom-related proteins (major royal jelly-like). Moreover, the solution-based proteomics revealed and confirmed the presence of several hydrolases, oxidoreductases, proteases, Kunitz-like polypeptides, and the less abundant inhibitor cysteine knot (ICK)-like (knottin) neurotoxins and insect defensin. Our results showed that the major components of the D. quadriceps venom are toxins that are highly likely to damage cell membranes and tissue, to cause neurotoxicity, and to induce allergic reactions, thus, expanding the knowledge about D. quadriceps venom composition and its potential biological effects on prey and victims.

The dinoponeratoxin peptides from the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps display in vitro antitrypanosomal activity.

The crude venom of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps is a cocktail of polypeptides and organic compounds that shows antiparasitic effects against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. In order to investigate the venom-derived components responsible for such antitrypanosomal activity, four dinoponeratoxins (DnTxs) were identified, namely M-PONTX-Dq3a, -Dq3b, -Dq3c and -Dq4e, that are diverse in size, net charge, hydrophobicity and propensity to interact with eukaryote cell membranes. These peptides were tested against epimastigote, trypomastigote and amastigote forms of benznidazole (Bz)-resistant Y strain of T. cruzi and in mammalian host cells. The M-PONTX-Dq3a and -Dq4e inhibited all developmental forms of T. cruzi, including amastigotes, the responsible form for the maintenance of infection on chronic phase of the disease. The M-PONTX-Dq3a showed the highest selectivity index (SI) (80) and caused morphological alterations in T. cruzi, as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and induced cell death through necrosis, as seen by multiparametric flow cytometry analysis with specific biochemical markers. Altogether, the D. quadriceps venom appears as a source for the prospection of trypanocidal peptides and the M-PONTX-Dq3a arises as a candidate among the dinoponeratoxin-related peptides in the development of compounds against Chagas disease.

Antiparasitic effect of Dinoponera quadriceps giant ant venom.

Neglected tropical diseases (NTD) are treated with toxic therapy of limited efficacy. Previously, we studied the antimicrobial effect of Dinoponera quadriceps venom (DqV) against bacteria. To continue the study, we report in this short communication the antimicrobial effect of DqV against Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi. DqV inhibits the promastigote forms of L. amazonensis and all T. cruzi developmental forms, with low toxicity in host cells. DqV causes cell death in T. cruzi through necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms observed by staining the cells with annexin V-FITC (AX) and propidium iodide (PI), loss of mitochondrial membrane potential by flow cytometry analyses and confocal microscopy and morphological alterations, such as loss of membrane integrity and cell shrinkage by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In conclusion, we suggest there is an antimicrobial effect also on parasites.

Antimicrobial effect of Dinoponera quadriceps (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) venom against Staphylococcus aureus strains.

AIMS: Dinoponera quadriceps venom (DqV) was examined to evaluate the antibacterial activity and its bactericidal action mechanism against Staphylococcus aureus. METHODS AND RESULTS: DqV was tested against a standard strain of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), Staph. aureus ATCC 6538P and two standard strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staph. aureus ATCC 33591 and Staph. aureus CCBH 5330. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), the rate of kill and pH sensitivity of the DqV were determined by microdilution tests. Bactericidal and inhibitory concentrations of DqV were tested to check its action on Staph. aureus membrane permeability and cell morphology. The MIC and MBC of DqV were 6·25 and 12·5 µg ml(-1) for Staph. aureus ATCC 6538P, 12·5 and 50 µg ml(-1) for Staph. aureus CCBH 5330 and 100 and 100 µg ml(-1) for Staph. aureus ATCC 33591, respectively. Complete bacterial growth inhibition was observed after 4 h of incubation with the MBC of DqV. A lowest MIC was observed in alkaline pH. Alteration in membrane permeability was observed through the increase in crystal violet uptake, genetic material release and morphology in atomic force microscopy. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest antibacterial activity of DqV against Staph. aureus and that the venom acts in the cell membrane. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Alteration in membrane permeability may be associated with the antimicrobial activity of hymenopteran venoms.

Peptidomic comparison and characterization of the major components of the venom of the giant ant Dinoponera quadriceps collected in four different areas of Brazil.

Despite the noxious effects inflicted by Dinoponera ant's envenomation, the information about the biological properties and composition of their venom is still very limited. Ants from the genus Dinoponera are believed to be the world's largest living ants with a body length of 3cm. Their occurrence is restricted to tropical areas of South America. In this work, we study the venom of the giant Dinoponera quadriceps ant collected in 4 different regions of Brazil. By using a combination of complementary mass spectrometric approaches, we aim at: (i) characterizing the venom composition of these ants; (ii) establishing a comparative analysis of the venom from four geographically different regions in Brazil. This approach demonstrates that ant venom is a copious source of new compounds. Several peptides were identified and selected for "de novo sequencing". Since most of the new peptides showed similarities with antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), antimicrobial assays were performed with the purpose of evaluating their activity. In regard to the comparative study of the four regions, we observed not only major differences in the venom compositions, but also that the venoms collected in closest areas are more similar than the ones collected in distant regions. These observations seem to highlight an adaption of the ant venoms to the local environment. Concerning the biological assays, the peptides called Dq-3162 and Da-3177 showed a wide-ranging antimicrobial activity. The characterization of new AMPs with a broad spectrum of activity and different scaffolds may aid scientists to design new therapeutic agents and understand the mechanisms of those peptides to interact with microbial membranes. The results obtained betoken the biotechnological potential of ant's venom. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: For the first time this manuscript describes an extensive proteomics characterization of the D. quadriceps venom. In addition this study reports the variation in venom composition of primitive ants from 4 geographically different areas of Brazil. The results reveal the presence of ~335 compounds for each venom/area and inter-colony variations were observed. 16 new peptides were characterized and 2 of them were synthesized and biologically assayed. These findings highlight the considerable and still unexplored diversity of ant's venom which could be used as valuable research tools in different areas of knowledge.

The effects of the Brazilian ant Dinoponera quadriceps venom on chemically induced seizure models.

Arthropod venoms are potential sources of neuroactive substances, providing new tools for the design of drugs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of Dinoponera quadriceps venom (DqV) on seizure models in mice induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), pilocarpine, and strychnine. In the PTZ model, intraperitoneal treatment with DqV (0.5mg/kg) increased the time until the first seizure and the percentage of survival (155.4±27.7s/12.5%, p<0.05) compared to the control group (79.75±3.97s/0%), whereas endovenous treatment (0.1 and 0.5mg/kg) decreased the time until the first seizure (0.1mg/kg: 77.83±5.3s versus 101.0±3.3s in the control group; 0.5mg/kg: 74.43±3.9s versus 101.0±3.3s for the control group, p<0.05). We did not observe significant changes in the pilocarpine- and strychnine-induced seizure models. In assays that measured oxidative parameters in the PTZ model, intraperitoneal treatment with DqV (0.5 and 2.0mg/kg) only decreased the levels of MDA and nitrite in the cortex. However, endovenous treatment with DqV (0.1 and 0.5mg/kg) increased the levels of MDA in the cortex and hippocampus and at a dose of 0.5mg/kg in the striatum. Moreover, increased in nitrite content was observed in all three of the brain regions analyzed. Taken together, the D. quadriceps venom caused both neuroprotective and neurotoxic effects in a PTZ-induced seizure model, and this effect was dependent on the route of administration used.