Another market segment: sport event tourism by disabled athletes.

Sports and tourism are connected in various parts of economies, cultures, and nations. However, there has been a limited understanding of sports event tourism involving disabled athletes. This study explored the behavioral and socio-demographic implications of the disabled sports event tourism and investigated the motivational factors involved. An in-person survey was administered to 108 disabled athletes who attended the summer and winter Paralympics. A Structural Equation Model was used to determine the association between the factors of life satisfaction, emotional happiness, escapism, perceived value, and future intention, using the Monte Carlo parametric bootstrapping method to test significance of direct and indirect effects. Cronbach was acceptable because it exceeds 0.70 which satisfies the cut-off of confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, the individual values of average variance extracted (AVE), were greater than 0.50 (0.72) which meets the requirement and the convergent validity of all the constructs. The results showed that life satisfaction had a significant direct effect on future intentions. Emotional happiness had a significant direct effect on the perceived value of an event. Escapism had significant direct effects on perceived value and future intentions. Perceived value significantly influenced future intentions. The relationship between emotional happiness and future intention was fully mediated by perceived value. However, the relationship between escapism and future intention was only partially mediated by perceived value. The results of this study are valuable for developing future management and marketing policies for disabled athletes and tourists to advance the existing sports event tourism and disabled athlete's behavior studies.

Application of immersive virtual reality in the training of wheelchair boxers: evaluation of exercise intensity and users experience additional load- a pilot exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: Over the last few years, there has been a growing interest in workout apps and active virtual reality video games (AVRGs), which provide entertainment and enable users to undertake various forms of physical activity (PA) at home. Presumably, these types of exercises can be particularly useful for people with physical disabilities, who experience problems with access to sports and leisure facilities due to architectural and communication barriers. However, it is interesting whether the intensity of PA in VR is high enough to provide users with health benefits, as it is mainly based on arm movements. OBJECTIVE: The main aim of the study was to evaluate the intensity of physical exercise of wheelchair boxers during a boxing training session using the FitXR app in immersive VR in light of health-related PA recommendations. The effect of Velcro-fastened hand-held weights (HHWs) on the intensity of PA undertaken by people in VR was also examined, and the attractiveness of virtual exercise were assessed in the opinion of users. METHODS: PA intensity was evaluated using a heart rate monitor based on the percentage of maximal heart rate (% HRmax) and the Borg's rating of perceived exertion (RPE 6-20). The attractiveness perceived during exercise by users were evaluated using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES 1-7 scale). RESULTS: The study shows that the exercise intensity of the athletes during wheelchair boxing training in VR is at a beneficial moderate level for health (HRave=68.98% HRmax). The use of HHWs (0.5 kg) does not significantly increase the PA intensity of the individuals during virtual exercise. Users with disabilities highly rated the attractiveness (6.32 ± 0.79 points) of PA during virtual boxing training. CONCLUSIONS: Boxing exercises in VR can be an attractive and health-related form of PA for wheelchair boxers and a supplement to their conventional training.

High prevalence of low bone mineral density but normal trabecular bone score in Norwegian elite Para athletes.

Background: Low bone mineral density (BMD) increases the risk of bone stress injuries (BSI) and is one of several clinical concerns in Para athlete sports medicine. However, whether bone microarchitecture is altered in Para athletes is not known. Objective: We aimed to investigate BMD, bone microarchitecture and incidence of bone stress injuries in Norwegian elite Para athletes. Design: In this cross-sectional study in Para athletes, Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (iDXA, Lunar, GE Health Care) derived areal BMD, trabecular bone score (TBS), a surrogate marker for bone microarchitecture, and body composition (body weight (BW), lean body mass (LBM), fat mass (FM), fat percentage) were investigated and compared between ambulant and non-ambulant athletes. Also, the association between BMD, TBS and body composition variables was investigated. Incidence of BSI was assessed with a questionnaire and confirmed by a sports physician in a clinical interview. BMD Z-score <-1 was defined as low and ≤-2 as osteoporotic. TBS ≥ 1.31 was normal, 1.23-1.31 intermediate and <1.23 low. Results: Among 38 athletes (26 ± 6 yrs, 14 females), BMD Z-score was low in 19 athletes, and osteoporotic in 11 athletes' lumbar spine (LS) or femoral neck (FN). BMD was lower in non-ambulant vs. ambulant athletes both in LS (1.13 ± 0.19 vs. 1.25 ± 0.14 g/cm2, p = 0.030) and FN (0.90 ± 0.15 vs. 1.07 ± 0.16 g/cm2, p = 0.003). TBS was normal for all athletes. BMD Z-score in LS was positively associated with TBS (r = 0.408, p = 0.013), body weight (r = 0.326, p = 0.046) and lean body mass (r = 0.414, p = 0.010), but not with fat mass or fat percentage. None of the athletes reported any BSI. Conclusions: Half of the Norwegian elite Para athletes had low BMD, and 29% had BMD Z-score <-2 suggesting osteoporosis. Non-ambulant athletes were more prone to low BMD than ambulant athletes. However, despite high prevalence of low BMD, TBS was normal in all athletes, and BSI was absent in this young population.

Young para-athletes display more hedonic well-being than people with disabilities not taking part in competitive sports: insights from a multi-country survey.

Hedonic well-being relates to how individuals experience and rate their lives. People with disabilities due to their pathology may more frequently suffer from anxiety and depressive disorders than their able-bodied counterparts. Sports participation is an essential way to cope with disability. On the other hand, compared with their able-bodied peers, para-athletes undergo a unique series of stressors. Little is known in terms of hedonic well-being in this specific population. We present the results of a multi-country survey of self-perceived hedonic well-being by para-athletes of different sports disciplines and a control group (disabled individuals not playing competitive sports), using the "Psychological General Well-Being Index" (PGWBI). We included 1,208 participants, aged 17.39 years, 58.4% male, 41.6% female, and 70.3% para-athletes. Para-athletes exhibited higher well-being than disabled people, for all domains of the PGWBI scale. The nature of disability/impairment was significant, with those with acquired disability reporting lower well-being. Those taking part in wheelchair basketball, para-athletics, and para-swimming competitions had a higher likelihood of reporting well-being, whereas those engaged in wheelchair rugby exhibited lower well-being compared with controls. This large-scale investigation can enable a better understanding of the self-perceived hedonic well-being of disabled people.

Immunological Response to Exercise in Athletes with Disabilities: A Narrative Review of the Literature.

For a person with a disability, participating in sports activities and/or competitions can be a challenge for the immune system. The relationship between exercise and immunity response in disabled athletes is, indeed, extremely complex for several reasons, including (1) the chronic low-grade inflammatory and immunodepression-"secondary immune deficiency"-state imposed by the disability/impairment; (2) the impact of the disability on an array of variables, spanning from physical fitness to well-being, quality of life, sleep, and nutritional aspects, among others, which are known to mediate/modulate the effects of exercise on human health; (3) the variability of the parameters related to the exercise/physical activity (modality, frequency, intensity, duration, training versus competition, etc.); and (4) the intra- and inter-individual variability of the immunological response to exercise. In able-bodied athletes, previously published data described several exercise-induced changes affecting various immunological subsets and subpopulations, ranging from neutrophils to lymphocytes, and monocytes. Broadly, moderate intensity workout is accompanied by optimal immunity and resistance to infections such as upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in athletes. Periods of intense training with insufficient recovery can cause a temporary state of immunosuppression, which should end with a few days of rest/recovery from exercise. Disabled athletes are relatively overlooked and understudied with respect to their able-bodied counterparts. Findings from the few studies available on paralympic and disabled athletes are here summarized and analyzed utilizing a narrative approach to review and determine the major features of the immunological and inflammatory responses to exercise in this specific population. Moreover, a few studies have reported behavioral, dietary, and training strategies that can be adopted to limit exercise-induced immunosuppression and reduce the risk of infection in people with disabilities. However, given the paucity of data and contrasting findings, future high-quality investigations on paralympic and disabled athletes are urgently needed.

Becoming a Paralympic Champion-Analysis of the Morpho-Functional Abilities of a Disabled Female Athlete in Cross-Country Skiing over a 10-Year Period.

Changing medical classification into the functional one in disabled cross-country skiing means that the athlete's predispositions and performance abilities most of all determine the final result in cross-country skiing. Thus, exercise tests have become an indispensable element of the training process. The subject of this study is to present a rare analysis of morpho-functional abilities in relation to the implementation of training workloads during the training preparation for a Paralympic champion in cross-country skiing when she was close to her maximal achievements. The study was performed to investigate abilities evaluated during laboratory tests and how they relate to performance outcomes during major tournaments. An exercise test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer was performed three times a year on a cross-country disabled female skier over a 10-year period. The morpho-functional level which enabled the athlete to compete for gold medals in the Paralympic Games (PG) is best reflected in the results obtained by her in the tests in the period of direct preparation for the PG and confirms optimal training workloads in this time. The study showed, that the VO2max level is presently the most important determinant of physical performance achieved by the examined athlete with physical disabilities. The aim of this paper is to present the level of exercise capacity of the Paralympic champion based on the analysis of the results of the tests in relation to the implementation of training workloads.

Well-being and quality of life in people with disabilities practicing sports, athletes with disabilities, and para-athletes: Insights from a critical review of the literature.

Global well-being (GWB) is a complex, multi-dimensional, and multi-faceted construct that can be explored from two different, but often overlapping, complementary perspectives: the subjective and the objective ones. The subjective perspective, in turn, is comprised of two dimensions: namely, the hedonic and the eudaimonic standpoints. Within the former dimension, researchers have developed the concept of subjective hedonic well-being (SHWB), whereas, within the latter, they have built the framework of psychological and social well-being (PSWB). Disabled people have poorer well-being due to their pathology and may more frequently suffer from anxiety and depressive disorders than their able-bodied counterparts. Sports participation is an essential way to cope with disability. On the other hand, compared with their able-bodied peers, athletes with disabilities and para-athletes undergo a unique series of stressors. Little is known in terms of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being and quality of life in this specific population. Here, we review the literature, with an emphasis on the current state-of-art and gaps in knowledge that need to be addressed by future research. High-quality, large-scale investigations are needed to have a better understanding of the self-perceived (hedonic) and objective (eudaimonic) well-being and quality of life of disabled people practicing sports, athletes with disabilities, and para-athletes.

Psychosocial aspects of sports medicine in pediatric athletes: Current concepts in the 21st century.

Behavioral aspects of organized sports activity for pediatric athletes are considered in a world consumed with winning at all costs. In the first part of this treatise, we deal with a number of themes faced by our children in their sports play. These concepts include the lure of sports, sports attrition, the mental health of pediatric athletes (i.e., effects of stress, anxiety, depression, suicide in athletes, ADHD and stimulants, coping with injuries, drug use, and eating disorders), violence in sports (i.e., concepts of the abused athlete including sexual abuse), dealing with supervisors (i.e., coaches, parents), peers, the talented athlete, early sports specialization and sports clubs. In the second part of this discussion, we cover ergolytic agents consumed by young athletes in attempts to win at all costs. Sports doping agents covered include anabolic steroids (anabolic-androgenic steroids or AAS), androstenedione, dehydroepiandrostenedione (DHEA), human growth hormone (hGH; also its human recombinant homologue: rhGH), clenbuterol, creatine, gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB), amphetamines, caffeine and ephedrine. Also considered are blood doping that includes erythropoietin (EPO) and concepts of gene doping. In the last section of this discussion, we look at disabled pediatric athletes that include such concepts as athletes with spinal cord injuries (SCIs), myelomeningocele, cerebral palsy, wheelchair athletes, and amputee athletes; also covered are pediatric athletes with visual impairment, deafness, and those with intellectual disability including Down syndrome. In addition, concepts of autonomic dysreflexia, boosting and atlantoaxial instability are emphasized. We conclude that clinicians and society should protect our precious pediatric athletes who face many challenges in their involvement with organized sports in a world obsessed with winning. There is much we can do to help our young athletes find benefit from sports play while avoiding or blunting negative consequences of organized sport activities.

Impact of floor covering on wheelchair rugby players: analysis of rolling performance.

Introduction: Despite the increased interest in indoor wheelchair sports in many countries, research on the effect of floor coverings on sports performance is limited. Currently, there are no specific guidelines for covering characteristics for wheelchair sports, whether for competitive or recreational purposes. This study aimed to determine the impact of floor coverings on the biomechanical parameters of manual wheelchair propulsion for wheelchair rugby practice. Methods: Ten wheelchair rugby players performed 6 maximum-velocity sprints over 20 meters, with a 20-second recovery time between sprints, on 3 different coverings, using their personal sports wheelchairs. The coverings were: wood parquet, Gerflor TX System Endurance®, and a plastic synthetic covering (balatum). Performance and propulsion technique variables were collected using inertial measurement units (265 Hz, Kinvent, France). Additionally, rolling resistance quantification tests were conducted on each covering. Results: Rolling resistance was lowest on the wood parquet, with an average value of 3.98 ± 0.97 N. Best sprint performance was achieved on the wood parquet. The fatigue index on the parquet was significantly lower than on the balatum (p < 0.05). Discussion: Our results highlight that floor surface influences both performance and propulsion technique variables. Therefore, we recommend performing wheelchair rugby training on wood parquet to optimize performance. It is also important to consider the impact of different coverings on sprint performance when organizing player rotations to maintain a high level of competition during tournaments.

Hand Grip Strength Vs. Locomotor Efficiency in Sitting Volleyball Players.

The objective of this paper was to determine the relationship between hand grip strength and movement time (locomotor efficiency in a seated position using the upper and lower extremities) in sitting volleyball players. In addition, a comparison was made between the velocity curves for forward and backward locomotion. Nine male members of the sitting volleyball team participated in the study. Hydraulic and spring manual dynamometers were used to measure hand grip strength. Movement times were registered for distances of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 10-m with the use of the Smart Speed System photocells. Significant relationships between hand grip strength of the left (rs=-0.78) and right (rs=-0.73) hands and the forward movement time over a distance of 1-m were found. Hand grip strength had no significant relationship with either forward movement times at other distances or backward movement times. Results suggest that hand strength is linked to locomotor efficiency of sitting volleyball players. High hand grip strength makes the start easier by pushing away from the ground with the upper limbs.

Pre-competition mental energy and performance relationships among physically disabled table tennis players.

Energy is essential to human daily functioning and performance. However, the association of mental energy with athletes' performance has rarely been examined. We attempted to examine the pre-competition mental energy-performance relationships by two studies. Study 1 administered Athletic Mental Energy Scale (AMES, Lu et al., 2018) to nine elite physically-disabled table tennis players one day before competition in 5 international tournaments. Then, we collected their subjective performance after each competition. In Study 2, we sampled 77 National-level physically-disabled table tennis players and examined the pre-competition mental energy-performance relationship as the procedure in Study 1. Results from Study 1 provided initial findings of how pre-competition mental energy is associated with performance and portrayed in elite physically-disabled table tennis players. Results from Study 2 further confirmed the pre-competition mental energy- performance relationships. We suggested future studies to examine the mental energy-performance relationships in physically-disabled and abled athletes and different sports.

Competing against COVID-19: what about the mental health problems of athletes with disabilities?

OBJECTIVES: Although there is growing interest in athletes' mental health (MH), there is a paucity of research exploring MH in athletes with disabilities (AWD). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the psychological state of AWD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An online survey including demographic questions, SARS-CoV-2-related questions, and standardized scales assessing depression, anxiety, stress, coronavirus anxiety (CAS), and nonspecific psychological distress was distributed to AWD. RESULTS: A total of 362 athletes (183 AWD) participated in the study (response rate 31.2%). AWD infected with SARS-CoV-2 reported higher depression, anxiety, and CAS scores than AWD not infected with SARS-CoV-2 (Z = -2.10, ES = 0.15 Z = -3.45, ES = 0.25; Z = -2.43, ES = 0.18; respectively). Female AWD reported higher anxiety scores compared to males (Z = -2.25, ES = 0.16). Depression (Z = -2.80, ES = 0.20), stress (Z = -2.12, ES = 0.15) and K-10 (Z = -2.02, ES = 0.14 scores of individual sport AWD were higher than team sports AWD. CONCLUSION: MH problems in AWD were associated with a wide range of variables such as being infected with SARS-CoV-2, female gender, competing in an individual sport, and having performance concerns. In light of these results, MH assessment should be undertaken for AWD to ensure appropriate and timely intervention.

Effects of 8-Week Electromyostimulation Training on Upper-Limb Muscle Activity and Respiratory Gas Analysis in Athletes with Disabilities.

This study was aimed at verifying the efficacy of EMS training by investigating the changes in upper-limb muscle functions and energy expenditure in athletes with disabilities after an 8-week intervention of EMS training. We compared variations in muscle activity, respiratory gas, and symmetry index (SI) after an 8-week intervention in eight professional male athletes with disabilities wearing an electromyostimulation (EMS) suit (age: 42.00 ± 8.67 years, height: 1.65 ± 0.16 m, weight: 64.00 ± 8.72 kg, career length: 11.75 ± 3.83 years). For EMS training, each participant wore an EMS suit. EMS was applied to the upper-limb muscles pectoralis major and triceps at 40 °C water temperature, with a 25 Hz frequency (duty cycle 10%) for 15 min, followed by a 5 Hz frequency (duty cycle 5%) for 5 min. The pre- and post-intervention measurements were taken in the same way at a pre-set time (for 1 h, twice a week) for 8 weeks. Training involved a seated chest press, and the muscle activity (pectoralis major, triceps, and antebrachial muscles), upper-limb SI, and respiratory gas variables (maximal oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), respiratory quotient (RQ), metabolic equivalents (METs), and energy expenditure per min (Energy expended per minute; EEm)) were analyzed. Variations pre- and post-intervention across the measured variables were analyzed. Regarding the change in muscle activity, significant variations were found in the pectoralis major right (p < 0.004), pectoralis major left (p < 0.001), triceps right (p < 0.002), and antebrachial right (p < 0.001). Regarding left-to-right SI, a positive change was detected in the pectoralis major and triceps muscles. Additionally, respiratory gas analysis indicated significant variations in VO2 (p < 0.001), VCO2 (p < 0.001), METs (p < 0.001), and EEm (p < 0.001). EMS training improved muscle strength and respiratory gas variables and is predicted to contribute to enhanced muscle function and rehabilitation training for athletes with disabilities.

A review of adaptive sport opportunities for power wheelchair users.

PURPOSE: To identify adaptive sports opportunities for individuals who use powered wheelchairs for their primary means of mobility, and to determine barriers and facilitators for new sporting opportunities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A structured literature review of the peer-reviewed scientific literature and analysis of major adaptive sport competitions information. Pubmed and Scopus were searched for the phrases "Power wheelchair sports" and "complex disability sport" to identify articles discussing competitive sport opportunities for power wheelchair users. Also, the websites and instructional materials were searched to identify what sports exist for power wheelchair users in the Paralympics, the National Veteran Wheelchair Games, the Invictus Games and the Warrior Games. RESULTS: Eleven articles were found from Pubmed and Scopus which met the criteria, most of which were focused on power soccer. The search for sport opportunities from the four major competitions found few events where someone using a power wheelchair could participate, most of which involve a stationary chair during competition (e.g., archery, billiards). CONCLUSIONS: This literature review identified few programs for sports for people who use power wheelchairs. Many challenges such as lack of appropriate technology, lack of programs, and challenging classification categories all interact to contribute to this problem. Opportunities exist for better and more appropriate technology to be developed and for new and innovative sports and rules to be adopted for these athletes to benefit more from sport and recreation.Implications for rehabilitationAthletes with complex disabilities and high support needs are not provided with the same opportunities as other athletes.Challenges such as insufficient technology, lack of programs, and challenging classification categories all interact to contribute to the lack of opportunities.Opportunities exist for better and more appropriate technology to be developed and for new and innovative sports and rules to be adopted for athletes with complex disabilities and high support needs to benefit more from sport and recreation.

Assessment of the upper limbs maximum power and the locomotion speed in amputee football players

Abstract Aim: The purpose of the study was to assess upper limbs' maximum power and locomotion speed among amputee football (amputee soccer) players. Methods: The 30-s Wingate Anaerobic test and the 20-m sprint test were performed. Anthropometric measurements and body composition (Body mass index (BMI), percentage of body fat (% BF), and lean body mass (LBM)) were examined. Results: BMI significantly differentiated forwards and defenders (p < 0.05). Peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) were related to LBM (p < 0.05), thus defenders reached higher values of PP, in comparison to forwards. % BF and BMI were related to relative mean power (rMP) (p < 0.05). Field position differentiated players in terms of upper limbs' relative peak power (rPP) in favour of forwards (p < 0.05). Age was a significant factor for speed velocity on 10 m and 20 m (p < 0.05). There was no relationship between upper limbs' power and locomotion speed. Conclusion: Body composition, especially % BF may influence on the anaerobic performance of amputee football players.

Effects of High-Velocity Strength Training on Movement Velocity and Strength Endurance in Experienced Powerlifters with Cerebral Palsy.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of a 6-week high-velocity strength training (HVST) intervention on movement velocity and strength endurance in experienced powerlifters with cerebral palsy (CP). Eleven experienced powerlifters with CP and seven from a control group (CON), were subjected to 6-week HVST. An assessment of movement velocity and strength endurance was conducted one week before (T1) and one week after (T2) the 6-week training intervention. During testing, athletes performed a maximum number of bench press repetitions possible within 5 sets of 15 s each, with 1-min passive rest intervals in-between. The indicator of movement velocity was the weight pressed in the first 5 s (5sW) in all performed sets. Strength endurance was described by the total weight (TW) pressed during the test. 5sW in T2 was significantly higher as compared with T1 in the CP group only (T1 928.9 ± 342.9 kg vs. T2 1007.3 ± 324.6 kg; p = 0.016). TW in T2 was significantly higher as compared with T1, both in the CP group (T1 2550.5 ± 843.9 kg vs. T2 2809.8 ± 981.3 kg; p < 0.001) and in the CON group (T1 2300.7 ± 845.1 kg vs. T2 2468.9 ± 890.1 kg; p = 0.049). A 6-week program of HVST increased movement velocity in resistance trained CP athletes. The gains of strength endurance were observed in both groups.

Hematological parameters in champion of Brazilian jiu-jitsu paradesport: Case study.

The behavior of biochemical and immunological parameters investigated in the field conditions in athletes is important to influence in the management of recovery and disease prevention as well as, to support the training program, as well as to improve the physical conditioning associated with health and performance. However, for amputee athletes, Brazilian jiu-jitsu paradesport practitioners, there are no published data to date. Thus, the objective of this case study was to quantify the magnitude of biochemical, hematological, and urinary alterations after a simulated fight session in elite athlete with world titles. Outcomes were obtained through blood analysis of samples collected at four different moments (M1-fasting; M2-1.5 hr after caloric intake; M3-Immediately after the simulated fight; M4-24 hr after the simulated fight). Responses triggered by the simulated fight between baseline and after 24 hr were found to increase in monocyte (100%), neutrophil (20%), and insulin (57%) concentrations, while reductions were observed in eosinophils (-50%), lymphocytes (-26.6%), platelets (-22%), cortisol (-50%), and creatine phosphokinase (-45.2%). After 24 hr lactate values returned to baseline levels. The different changes in biochemical and hematological parameters observed constitute responses to acute physical exercise and were according to the level of the high performance athlete. From these data it will be possible to evaluate the periodization, training load, and recovery techniques according to the individual response verified. In addition, these data may be used for comparison purposes within this specific sport, whose literature is still limited.

Involvement in Multiple Race Events Among International Para and Non-disabled Swimmers.

International elite Para swimmers form a large portion of the overall multi-medalist winning population. For the highest performing Para swimmers, world class performances were achieved across different strokes. The aim of this study was to quantify the level of involvement across different events and to examine this in relation to the level of performance. The performances in swimming speed of the top 100 females and males for both Para- and non-disabled swimmers were collected in 11 race events between 2009 and 2019 (4,400 performances for 307 Para females and 365 Para males, 605 non-disabled females, and 715 non-disabled males). We tallied the number of events in which each swimmer was involved. Swimmers were grouped according to the total number of race events in which they participated. Then the association between involvement and level of performance was investigated. Para swimmers with impairment from classes seven to 14 were involved in a range of race events across different strokes. The most common combination for both Para and non-disabled athletes was over similarly distanced races of the same stroke (50 and 100 m freestyle). The more race events in which Para swimmers involved, the higher the level of performance that was achieved. This trend can partially be explained by the less concentrated competition pool for Para swimmers compared to able-bodied swimmers. Para swimmers with minimal and no physical impairment perform in multiple race events more often than able-bodied swimmers. Fewer Para swimmers at the international level and a less concentrated competition pool could explain these differences.

Eating Behaviour among Disabled Athletes in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: Nutrition has always been associated with eating behaviour. The eating behaviour can impact not only the normal population but also athletes' population including disabled athletes too. Athletes have a higher tendency to unhealthy eating behaviour due to intense pressure and competitive environment in sports. It is important to identify the types of eating behaviour among disabled athletes to prevent eating disorder that could affect their performance. Thus, this study aims to identify the types of eating behaviour among disabled athletes in Malaysia. METHODS: This study involved 93 disabled athletes in Malaysia. The setting of the study is at National Sports Council, Malaysia. The data obtained are analysed using chi-square test using SPSS. RESULTS: This study shows that the most common types of eating behaviour among disabled athletes are emotional eating (37.6%), followed by uncontrolled eating (34.3%) and cognitive restraint (28%). Most of the overweight and obese disabled athletes are prone to emotional eating (19.4%) as compared to non-overweight athletes (18.3%). CONCLUSION: As a conclusion, recognising the eating behaviour in disabled athletes is important as more effective and innovative interventions and measures can be undertaken to prevent eating disorder which can enhance sports performance.

Eating Behaviour among Disabled Athletes in Malaysia

@#Background: Nutrition has always been associated with eating behaviour. The eating behaviour can impact not only the normal population but also athletes’ population including disabled athletes too. Athletes have a higher tendency to unhealthy eating behaviour due to intense pressure and competitive environment in sports. It is important to identify the types of eating behaviour among disabled athletes to prevent eating disorder that could affect their performance. Thus, this study aims to identify the types of eating behaviour among disabled athletes in Malaysia. Methods: This study involved 93 disabled athletes in Malaysia. The setting of the study is at National Sports Council, Malaysia. The data obtained are analysed using chi-square test using SPSS. Results: This study shows that the most common types of eating behaviour among disabled athletes are emotional eating (37.6%), followed by uncontrolled eating (34.3%) and cognitive restraint (28%). Most of the overweight and obese disabled athletes are prone to emotional eating (19.4%) as compared to non-overweight athletes (18.3%). Conclusion: As a conclusion, recognising the eating behaviour in disabled athletes is important as more effective and innovative interventions and measures can be undertaken to prevent eating disorder which can enhance sports performance.