Retrospection and reflection on standardized residency training system from the perspective of medical education history / 中华医学教育探索杂志

Based on the national policies, regulations and documents on residency training, this paper sorts out the historical evolution of the standardized residency training system in China, and divides its development into four stages: preliminary exploration, local pilot, national trials, and implementation. It also puts forward some practical thoughts on its development law and future trend, such aspects as that the system reform follows the top-down administrative order and indicative plan, the system pays attention to the gradual implementation on the basis of summing up practical experience, and the system needs continuous implementation and improvement from the overall perspective.

UFSC Graduate Program in Nursing: 45 years of contributions to the internationalization of brazilian nursing / Programa de Posgrado en Enfermería de la UFSC: 45 años contribuyendo a la internacionalización de la enfermería brasileña / Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem da UFSC: 45 anos de contribuição para a internacionalização da enfermagem brasileira

ABSTRACT Objective: to analyze the contribution of the Graduate Program in Nursing at Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina to the internationalization of Brazilian nursing. Method: this is a qualitative study of a social historical nature and with a political-documentary basis. The following were used as primary sources: 22 reports (from 1998 to 2020), available in the files of the aforementioned program and in the institutional website of the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, in addition to the five National Graduate Plans; and the secondary source was the article about the 30 years of the Program. The data were analyzed following the thematic content analysis steps, with the aid of the ATLAS.ti® software, version 9.1.5.0. The findings related to the internationalization initiatives carried out within the scope of the Program were interpreted in relation to the macro-policies of Brazilian graduate education. Results: the three analytical categories: Ground zero - The first steps of the Program towards internationalization (1976-1997), Consolidation milestone - Strengthening internationalization strategies (1998-2006), and Excellence milestone - The visibility of internationalization (2007-2020), show the internal and external movements that involved the Program's internationalization process. Conclusion: the contribution of the Graduate Program to the internationalization of Brazilian nursing was based on the commitment of its faculty and students to the profession and its challenges, as well as on a critical perspective at the legal parameters established. The 45-year trajectory, guided by the constitutional bases of international relations, in an original and pioneering way, fostered the development of partnerships, academic advisory and international solidarity. This entire movement exerted a positive impact on the strengthening of the nursing and health science in the world.

RESUMEN Objetivo: analizar la contribución del Programa de Posgrado en Enfermería de la Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina a la internacionalización de la enfermería brasileña. Método: estudio cualitativo de carácter histórico social y base político-documental. Se utilizaron como fuentes primarias: 22 informes (1998 a 2020), Disponíbles en los archivos del citado programa y sitio web institucional de la Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, y cinco Planes Nacionales de Posgrado; y como fuente secundaria el artículo sobre los 30 años del Programa. Los datos se analizaron siguiendo los pasos del análisis de contenido temático, utilizando el software ATLAS.ti versión 9.1.5.0®. Los hallazgos relacionados con las iniciativas de internacionalización llevadas a cabo en el ámbito del Programa se interpretaron en relación con las macropolíticas de los estudios de Posgrado brasileños. Resultados: las tres categorías analíticas: Marco Inicial - primeros pasos del Programa hacia la internacionalización (1976-1997), Marco de consolidación - fortalecimiento de las estrategias de internacionalización (1998-2006) y Marco de excelencia - visibilidad de la internacionalización (2007-2020) muestran los movimientos internos y externos que involucraron el proceso de internacionalización del Programa. Conclusión: la contribución del Programa de Posgrado a la internacionalización de la enfermería brasileña se basó en el compromiso de los docentes y estudiantes con la profesión y los desafíos, así como también en una mirada crítica a los parámetros legales establecidos. La trayectoria de 45 años, guiada por las bases constitucionales de las relaciones internacionales, de manera original y vanguardista, fomentó el desarrollo de asociaciones, asesorías y solidaridad internacional. Este movimiento tuvo un impacto positivo en el fortalecimiento de la enfermería y de las ciencias de la salud en el mundo.

RESUMO Objetivo: analisar a contribuição do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem da Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina para a internacionalização da enfermagem brasileira. Método: trata-se de estudo qualitativo de cunho histórico social e de base político-documental. Foram utilizadas como fontes primárias: 22 relatórios (1998 a 2020), disponíveis nos arquivos do referido Programa e site institucional da Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, além dos cinco Planos Nacionais de Pós-Graduação; como fonte secundária, o artigo acerca dos 30 anos do Programa. Os dados foram analisados seguindo os passos da análise de conteúdo temática, com o auxílio do software ATLAS.ti versão 9.1.5.0®. Os achados relativos às iniciativas de internacionalização realizadas no âmbito do Programa foram interpretados relacionando-os com as macropolíticas da Pós-Graduação brasileira. Resultados: as três categorias analíticas: Marco zero - os primeiros passos do Programa rumo à internacionalização (1976-1997), Marco da consolidação - fortalecendo estratégias de internacionalização (1998-2006) e Marco da excelência - a visibilidade da internacionalização (2007-2020) mostram os movimentos internos e externos que envolveram o processo de internacionalização do Programa. Conclusão: a contribuição do Programa de Pós-Graduação para a internacionalização da enfermagem brasileira pautou-se no compromisso do seu corpo docente e discente com a profissão e seus desafios, assim como no olhar crítico para os parâmetros legais instituídos. A trajetória, de 45 anos, norteada pelas bases constitucionais das relações internacionais, de modo original e desbravador, fomentou o desenvolvimento de parcerias, assessorias e solidariedade internacional. Todo esse movimento impactou positivamente no fortalecimento da ciência da enfermagem e saúde no mundo.

Why Intelligence Is Missing from American Education Policy and Practice, and What Can Be Done About It.

To understand why education as a field has not incorporated intelligence, we must consider the field's history and culture. Accordingly, in this cross-disciplinary collaboration between a political scientist who studies institutions and a psychologist who studies intelligence, we outline how the roots of contemporary American Educational Leadership as a field determine its contemporary avoidance of the concept of intelligence. Rooted in early 20th century progressivism and scientific management, Educational Leadership theory envisions professionally run schools as "Taylorist" factories with teaching and leadership largely standardized, prioritizing compliance over cognitive ability among educators. Further, the roots of modern education theory do not see the intelligence of students as largely malleable. Hence, prioritizing intelligence is viewed as elitist. For more than a century, these assumptions have impacted recruitment into education as a profession. We conclude with ideas about how to bring intelligence into mainstream schooling, within the existing K-12 education institutional context. We believe that better integration of intelligence and broader individual differences research in education policy and practice would lead to more rapid advances to finding evidence based solutions to help children.

[Beginning of modern stomatology education of China in later Qing dynasty].

In the 19th century, modern stomatology education were introduced into China with the impact of the west medicine and education. The apprenticeship of modern stomatology education were carried out by missionaries firstly, and then changed to dental schools established by the missionaries or foreigners, which was replaced partly by local Chinese dentists later and improved the development of modern Chinese stomatology education preliminarily.

The past, today and future of private higher medical education / 中华医学教育探索杂志

With the development of higher education in China, the higher medical education has achieved great improvement. The development history, achievements and future direction of China's private higher education was introduced in this paper. And it put forward suggestions on how to face the challenges and to enhance connotation development of the medical college after the publishment of "Privately-Run School of PR China". This study will contribute to the quick development of higher medical education.

Beginning of modern stomatology education of China in later Qing dynasty / 中华口腔医学杂志

In the 19th century, modern stomatology education were introduced into China with the impact of the west medicine and education. The apprenticeship of modern stomatology education were carried out by missionaries firstly, and then changed to dental schools established by the missionaries or foreigners, which was replaced partly by local Chinese dentists later and improved the development of modern Chinese stomatology education preliminarily.

Continence care education: views of students and registered nurses.

BACKGROUND: this article reports on a study of continence education and training for students and qualified nurses. AIMS: to understand how nurses and nursing students gain their knowledge in continence education and training, to examine nurses' understanding of bladder and bowel care and to discover to what degree nurses are confident in their knowledge of bladder and bowel care. METHODS: this was a qualitative enquiry and a case study methodology was used to frame the research. The data were captured through a questionnaire and group discussions. FINDINGS: continence education comprised support through self-learning, classroom instruction, skills laboratory sessions and on the wards. Feedback from participants indicated that, although continence education enhanced learning, they thought continence education sessions were either too short or did not go into enough detail. Two key factors that limited learning in the workplace were time and work priorities. CONCLUSION: it is recommended that a combination of learning strategies is useful and valuable in developing the nurse's skills and knowledge of continence care, if time and funding are available.

'His Whole Nature requires Development': Education, School Life and Deafness in Wales, 1850-1914.

The history of deaf education has focused heavily on one major issue: the role of sign language and the rise of oralism as a means of suppressing the use of signs. This was a crucial debate which affected the lives of deaf children, informed social and cultural attitudes towards deafness and in many cases spurred resistance from deaf communities. However, other aspects of daily school life and the curriculum of Victorian and Edwardian deaf schools have rarely been commented upon. Focusing on the Cambrian Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Wales' first deaf institution, this article will examine the teaching of writing and moral, religious and industrial education, all of which constructed an image of the intellectual and moral capabilities of the deaf child. The article will argue that deaf children were prescribed a moral and religious identity, and played an active role in wider Victorian and Edwardian discourses of education and childhood.

Os Jogos Desportivos Luso-Brasileiros e os Congressos Luso-Brasileiros de Educação Física no âmbito das relações internacionais Brasil-Portugal (década de 1960) / Luso-Brazilian Games and Luso-Brazilian Congress of Physical Education in the context of Brazil-Portugal international relations (1960’s) / Los Juegos Deportivos Luso-Brasileños y los Congresos Luso-Brasileños de Educación Física en el ámbito de las relaciones internacionales entre Brasil y Portugal (década de 1960)

Resumo Este estudo objetiva discutir os Jogos Desportivos Luso-Brasileiros e os Congressos Luso-Brasileiros de Educação Física no âmbito das relações internacionais Brasil-Portugal (década de 1960). Para alcance do objetivo, como fontes foram usados: o Boletim do Ultramar, a Revista de Educação Física e os Arquivos da Escola Nacional de Educação Física e Desportos (Enefd). O intuito é lançar novos olhares para a mobilização do esporte no âmbito da política colonial portuguesa, bem como para o relacionamento entre Brasil e Portugal na esfera da educação física/ciências do esporte. Ao fim, chamamos a atenção para a necessidade de avaliar com cuidado as iniciativas contemporâneas semelhantes às investigadas.

Abstract This study aims to discuss the Luso-Brazilian Games and Luso-Brazilian Congress of Physical Education in the context of Brazil-Portugal international relations (1960's). To reach the goal, as sources were used Boletim do Ultramar, Revista de Educação Física and Arquivos da ENEFD. The aim is to launch new looks to the mobilization of sport in Portuguese colonial policy and to relation between Brazil and Portugal in Physical Education/Sport Science area. At the end, we draw attention to the need to carefully evaluate contemporary initiatives similar to those investigated.

Resumen Este estudio tiene por objetivo abordar la realización de los Juegos Deportivos Luso-Brasileños y los Congresos Luso-Brasileños de Educación Física en el contexto de las relaciones internacionales entre Brasil y Portugal en la década de 1960. Para alcanzar el objetivo, se utilizaron como fuentes el Boletim do Ultramar, la Revista de Educação Física y los Arquivos da ENEFD. La intención es lanzar nuevas miradas sobre la movilización del deporte en la política colonial portuguesa, así como sobre las relaciones entre Brasil y Portugal en el ámbito de la educación física/ciencias del deporte. Al final, llamamos la atención sobre la necesidad de evaluar cuidadosamente las iniciativas contemporáneas similares a las celebraciones investigadas.

Subjects, knowledges and practices circulating in the international meeting of Physical Education: pedagogical textures and models (Belo Horizonte, 1957-1962) / Sujeitos, saberes e práticas em circulação nas Jornadas Internacionais de Educação Física: tessituras e modelagens pedagógicas (Belo Horizonte, 1957-1962) / Sujetos, saberes y prácticas en circulación en las Jornadas Internacionales sobre Educación Física: tesituras y modelos pedagógicos (Belo Horizonte, 1957-1962)

This article discusses, from a historical perspective, training of Physical Education teachers based on methods, contents and subjects circulating in the International Meeting of Physical Education held in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, from 1957 to 1962. Using written sources and statements, it found a Physical Education with moralizing features, based on religious prescriptions, indicating the precepts of a whole and humanistic education

Este artigo aborda, numa perspectiva histórica, o tema da formação de professores de Educação Física a partir dos métodos, conteúdos e sujeitos em circulação nas Jornadas Internacionais de Educação Física, realizadas na cidade de Belo Horizonte, entre 1957 e 1962. Com base em fontes documentais e depoimentos, identificou-se uma Educação Física de contornos moralizadores, afiançada por prescrições religiosas, realçando preceitos de uma educação integral e humanista

Objetiva identificar las prácticas sobre teoría de la Este artículo aborda, desde una perspectiva histórica, la temática de la formación de profesores en Educación Física, a partir de analizar los métodos, contenidos y sujetos que participaron en las Jornadas Internacionales de Educación Física, desarrolladas en la ciudad de Belo Horizonte (Brasil) entre 1957 y 1962. La reflexión sobre las fuentes documentales y discursos sobre estos eventos reflejan lo que puede identificarse como una Educación Física de contornos moralizadores, amparada en prescripciones religiosas que destacaban preceptos que procuraban una educación integral y humanista

Cardiac surgery: a century of progress.

Well into the first decades of the 20th century, medical opinion held that any surgical attempts to treat heart disease were not only misguided, but unethical. Despite such reservations, innovative surgeons showed that heart wounds could be successfully repaired. Then, extracardiac procedures were performed to correct patent ductus arteriosus, coarctation of the aorta, and tetralogy of Fallot. Direct surgery on the heart was accomplished with closed commissurotomy for mitral stenosis. The introduction of the heart-lung machine and cardiopulmonary bypass enabled the surgical treatment of other congenital and acquired heart diseases. Advances in aortic surgery paralleled these successes. The development of coronary artery bypass grafting greatly aided the treatment of coronary heart disease. Cardiac transplantation, attempts to use the total artificial heart, and the application of ventricular assist devices have brought us to the present day.Although progress in the field of cardiovascular surgery appears to have slowed when compared with the halcyon times of the past, substantial challenges still face cardiac surgeons. It can only be hoped that sufficient resources and incentive can carry the triumphs of the 20th century into the 21st. This review covers past developments and future opportunities in cardiac surgery.

Histórias orais de vida: artes da memória comum / Oral life stories: common memory arts

Buscamos diálogos da história oral com a educaç?o popularem saúde. A partir desta perspectiva, refletimos sobrecomunidade como práxis intercultural. As histórias oraisde vida em comum contribuem para a compreensão erealização desta práxis. Propomos um dispositivo, o Papode Roda, no qual a força de um comum, intercultural, experencialatravés das histórias orais de vida em comum dácondições da transmissão acontecer. Estes diálogos buscamconstruir na saúde um pensamento-ação da/na diversidade,ocupando-se sobremaneira de uma matéria prima dasaúde, as experiências de vida que articulam saúde com aminoritária história, descontínua, que se faz em lugares dacidade que permitem, no presente, o engendramento dealternativas para demandas contemporâneas de comunidade.Outro instrumento para a práxis política se afirma naeducação popular em saúde, com pistas que respondem aestas demandas de comunidade.

A escola como atração urbana: as encenações de espetáculos educacionais no Rio de Janeiro e em Buenos Aires nos anos 1920 / The school as an urban attraction: the staging of educational spectacles in Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires in the 1920's

O artigo dialoga com as pesquisas que têm procurado perscrutar a circulação de modelos e práticas de escolarização entre o Brasil e a Argentina. Este conjunto de reflexões vem se esforçando para aclarar os cuidados que devem acompanhar os interesses investigativos daqueles que se dispõem a aceitar o desafio de construir um exercício comparativo. Dentre estes cuidados, talvez o maior seja aquele referente à preocupação em realçar não apenas as proximidades, mas fundamentalmente, as singularidades históricas das circunstâncias analisadas. Alicerçado nessa perspectiva teórico-metodológica, foram problematizados aproximações e distanciamentos entre as encenações dos espetáculos educacionais protagonizadas pelas crianças no decurso dos anos 1920 no Rio de Janeiro e em Buenos Aires. Nesse sentido, estiveram em atenção as motivações que concorreram para que, tanto naquela cidade quanto nesta, tais ocasiões fossem empregadas para a disseminação de preceitos educativos pelos ambientes urbanos.

This article dialogues with the researches that have been trying to peer the circulation and practices of schooling in Brazil and Argentina. This group of reflections has been striving to clarify the necessary care that must follow the investigative interests of the ones who are willing to accept the challenge of building a comparative exercise. Among theses cares, the biggest one may be the one regarding the preoccupation in highlighting, not only the proximities, but, fundamentally, the historical singularities of the analyzed circumstances. Anchored in this theoretical-methodological perspective, approximations and detachments between the staging of educational spectacles featured by children along the 1920's in Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires were questioned. In that sense, the motivations that played a role in both cities were in the focus so that such occasions were employed for the dissemination of educational precepts by urban environments.

Aspectos históricos da educação no Brasil versus violência física na infância: reflexões / History aspects of education in Brazil versus physical violence during childhood: reflections

O texto foca a relação entre o processo de educação de crianças no Brasil e a prática de castigos físicos. Por meio de revisão de literatura, as autoras refletem sobre as questões contextuais de violência física e a evolução do papel da criança na sociedade. Aborda a família e a escola na vida da criança, enfatizando as suas relações e o castigo físico nesses dois âmbitos. As autoras concluem que as formas de educação da criança hoje ainda apresentam traços históricos culturais que favorecem fortemente a prática de violência física na infância, colocando a questão das mudanças culturais como ponto estratégico para o combate à violência no país.

The text focus is on the relationship between the children education process in Brazil and the corporal punishment practice. Through the literature review, the authors reflect on the contextual issues of physical violence and the evolution of childrenïs role in the society. It discusses the family and school on childrenïs life, emphasizing their relationship withcorporal punishment in both areas. The authors Conclusion is that the forms of education of children today still show historic cultural traces that strongly favor the practice of physical violence in childhood, raising the issue of cultural changes as strategic point for fighting violence in the country.

A necessária superação da dicotomia no debate séries-ciclos na escola obrigatória / Overcoming the dichotomy in retention-promotion debate on compulsory school

A organização da escola e a cultura escolar são abordadas na sua relação com a implantação dos ciclos, em especial, nas escolas públicas. Tal relação é construída para consubstanciar a afirmação de que é necessário superar a dicotomia estabelecida no discurso tanto de professores, quanto de formuladores de políticas ou até mesmo de políticos e da população em geral, no que tange à qualidade da educação escolar, em relação à organização da escola em séries ou em ciclos. O objetivo do estudo é apontar para a necessidade de romper essa dicotomia, muitas vezes presente no debate séries/ciclos, e argumentar a favor de sua superação para a construção de uma escola mais democrática e para todos.(AU)

The organization of schooling and the school culture are discussed in relation to the introduction of social promotion by learning cycles, particularly in public school systems. This relationship is constructed to substantiate the statement that is necessary to overcome the dichotomy established on the discourse of teachers, policy-makers and even politicians, as well as general population, on the quality of education, as far as regards the organization of the school into grades or learning cycles with social promotion. This study aims to indicate the need to eliminate the dichotomy which is often present in this issue, and to argue in favor of overcoming it in order to build more democratic school for all and for everyone.(AU)

Evaluation of researches on Chinese Medicine education in modern Jiangsu Provice / 中华医学教育探索杂志

Great achievements have been made on researches about Chinese Medicine education in modern Jiangsu Provice, which includes Shanghai and Nanjing before the year 1927. Through the researches, not only have volumes of valuable historical materials been saved and reorganized, but also plentiful academic achievements of high levels have been gained. However, generally speaking, the research work is not perfect enough. Much more progress can be made by further mining the historical materials, applying researh methods, developing different perspectives and so on.

The case of Latin America and the Caribbean.

PIP: Population education programs in Latin America and the Caribbean are traced from their first inception around 1970 and express the diversity of strategies that would be appropriate to the variety of cultures, development styles, climates, and geography. In the early 1970s, this region had the highest growth rates in the world. The thinking embodied the notion that large populations were a sign of progress and geopolitical power; size was relevant only to the physical space available. The connections between population and economic development were not being made explicitly in policy or sectoral planning. There was some contention surrounding urban growth and the ability to meet the needs and the imbalance in the age structure. Initially, educational sectors did not take population into accounting; international agencies were responsible for promoting attention to demographics. It was the medical profession that mobilized the education sector to start sex and family education, due to the increasing number of abortions and their consequences. By 1974, education departments were engaged in curricula that included sex and family life issues, in teacher education, and training staff to implement these programs. The demographic situation has changed over the past 20 years, and not includes reduced mortality and the beginning of fertility decline. Growth rates are now 1.9% annually compared with 2.8% in 1970, and population increases by 9 million/year. Population education is described in terms of styles, motivations, human resources, administrative awareness, teacher training, training strategies and research needs, and future management. Population education has advanced, but the need is still there to reduce fertility among large numbers of people who "leave procreation to chance and fate." Education serves the purpose of changing values, attitudes, and knowledge that entails a different view of the value of children, the relations between the sexes, and the adoption and practice of effective birth control. Education has already been shown to be effective in reducing infant mortality. The challenge ahead is to educate the poorer social and economic classes and Indian groups that lack knowledge of preventive hygiene and believe fatalistically that deaths are natural and unavoidable. Development models must accommodate population issues.^ieng

Population education in the USA.

PIP: By the late 1960s, universities and private organizations began to develop population education programs and courses in the wake of the warning of demographer Philip M. Hauser about the lack of demographic information in the school curriculum. In the early 1970s, the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare provided limited funding for teacher training workshops and classroom materials. Baltimore City's district wide population education program proved successful in 1975 after 10 years of work, population education materials were adopted in the official social studies curriculum, and this model was accepted later by other school systems. In 1979 not quite 15 US colleges and universities taught population issues at graduate-level training or by offering workshops and materials. By the mid-1970s, universities and private organizations were conducting conferences and workshops for secondary school teachers. In the 1970s, these included the Center for Information on America. Environment-Population Education Services, Planned Parenthood, Population Institute, Population Reference Bureau (PRB), the World Bank, and Zero Population Growth (ZPG). In the 1970s and early 1980s various other organizations contributed to population educations, e.g. the University of Cincinnati by organizing institutes, the National Catholic Educational Association representing 8200 schools ZPG with teacher-training workshops, and PRB with meaningful materials for students and teachers. The state of population education in 1992 means that PRB staff lead 15-30 workshops each year and provide workshop materials for teachers. ZPG emphasizes hands-on learning. Pet Net, a network of volunteer teacher trainers leading workshops, and ZPG staff conducted 88 workshops in 1991.^ieng

Sex education in Portugal.

PIP: The article on sex education in Portugal covers background, the educational system, the clashes of the 1960's over sex education, the Committee for the Study of Sexuality and Education (CSSE), the policies, politics and social movements during the period 1974 - 1984, the discussions in Parliament, the 1988 Reform of the Educational System, the Family Planning Association (FPA) and sex education, and the future role of the FPA. It was not until the institution of the multiparity parliamentary system in 1974 that discussing social and political changes was possible, culminating in 1984 with new legislation on abortion, family planning, and sex education. School reform came in 1987/8 with the Ministry of Education primarily responsible for curricula. The 1960's brought with it the influence of the Catholic Church. Change came in the form of progressivism among Catholics who replaced dogma with dialogue and listening. Sex education was considered as preparation for marriage, but masturbation, contraception, and prostitution were also discussed. In addition, the founder of FPA chaired the CSSE in 1971 and opened up debate on sex issues and drafted a bill to establish co-education in Portuguese schools. The revolution of 1974 brought an end to censorship and brought forth a policy of developing family planning. Changed in the Family Code gave women greater equality. UNFPA supported teacher training in non-sexist education. With human reproduction included in the natural sciences, there was still no school sex education policy and contraception was only sometimes represented in the biology curriculum. The focus of FPA was on contraception and abortion. Finally in the 1980's, the first sex education programs were developed for out-of-school youth. Even though in the 1970's there were leftists groups promoting sex education, it took leftist parliamentary power to get legislation on sex education in the schools adopted. The Ministry of Education however was pressured by the Catholic Church. As in 1973, committees were formed but no action was taken. Sex education activity increased nonetheless - the first FPA document on school education prepared. In 1986 Personal and Social Education was approved by parliament providing an alternative (due to the Catholic Church) to Religious Education, but even with FPA support documents, the implementation did not begin until the end of 1990. In brief the FPA's emphasis was on the body, sexuality, sex and interpersonal relationships, and sexual reproduction. The role of FPA continues at the grass roots level in stimulating discussion; cooperating with schools, students and parents; and acting as a resource center.^ieng