Ensombreciendo el surgimiento de clases de equivalencia / Overshadowing the formation of equivalence classes

Investigaciones actuales postulan que el condicionamiento respondiente (CR) es suficiente para establecer clases de equivalencia de estímulos (CEE). A su vez, el fenómeno de ensombrecimiento no se ha estudiado dentro del contexto de aprendizaje de CEE. Estudiar la influencia de procesos propios del CR se plantea como una forma de evaluar esta hipótesis. Tres clases de tres estímulos fueron entrenadas mediante una tarea de emparejamiento con la muestra. Cada clase estuvo compuesta por dos estímulos simples y un estímulo compuesto, conformado por dos estímulos de distinta saliencia. Luego se evaluó la emergencia de relaciones derivadas para los estímulos saliente y ensombrecido. La emergencia de CEE se observó en cuatro de 13 sujetos para el estímulo saliente y en ninguno para el estímulo ensombrecido. Estos resultados demuestran que la emergencia de relaciones derivadas es sensible al ensombrecimiento, y aporta evidencia respecto del rol del CR en la formación de CEE.

Current researches postulate that respondent conditioning (RC) is sufficient to establish Stimuli Equivalence Classes (SEC). In turn, the influency of the the overshadowing phenomenon has not been studied within the learning context of SEC. Studying the influence of RC\'s processes is posed as a way of evaluating this hypothesis. Three classes of three stimuli were trained through a matching to sample task. Each class consisted of two simple stimuli and one compound stimulus, consisting of two stimuli of different salience. The emergence of derived relationships for salient and overshadowed stimuli was then evaluated. Emergence of SEC was observed in four of 13 subjects for the salient stimuli and in none for the overshadowed stimuli. These results shown that the emergence of derived relationships is sensitive to overshadowing, and provides evidence regarding the role of RC in the formation of SEC.

Evolución de fenómenos básicos de aprendizaje en tareas de memoria espacial: Bloqueo, ensombrecimiento e inhibición latente en anfibios / Evolution of basic learning phenomena in spatial memory tasks: Blocking, overshadowing and latent inhibition in amphibians

En este artículo se describen desde una perspectiva comparativa los fenómenos de bloqueo, ensombrecimiento e inhibición latente, enfatizando su presencia en tareas de aprendizaje espacial. Estos fenómenos de aprendizaje, ampliamente observados en otras clases de vertebrados e invertebrados, han sido recientemente descriptos por primera vez en anfibios, un grupo de vertebrados con un cerebro filogenéticamente antiguo. Tomando como modelo al sapo terrestre Rhinella arenarum, se revisarán los tres fenómenos de aprendizaje asociativo mencionados en una situación de aprendizaje espacial: (1) bloqueo entre claves visuales asociadas a una meta, (2) ensombrecimiento de una clave visual lejana por la presencia de una clave cercana y (3) inhibición latente debida a la pre-exposición a una clave visual. Todos los entrenamientos se llevaron a cabo en una arena circular de color blanco, utilizando agua como recompensa. Dentro de la arena, se distribuyeron cuatro piletas de acrílico en forma de cruz contra las paredes laterales (sólo una tenía acceso a la recompensa). En las paredes interiores de la arena circular se colocaron varias señales visuales para guiar a los animales. Los resultados obtenidos en sapos indican que estos fenómenos, observados previamente en aves y mamíferos, también se encuentran en este grupo (utilizando un paradigma de aprendizaje espacial con claves visuales cercanas y lejanas). Este primer registro en anfibios sugiere que los mecanismos biológicos de estos fenómenos de aprendizaje han surgido muy tempranamente en el curso de la evolución de los vertebrados totalmente terrestres y que los mismos han sido fuertemente conservados. El análisis comparado de estos hallazgos contribuirá a mejorar el entendimiento de los mecanismos biológicos que subyacen al aprendizaje espacial, en busca de patrones funcionales comunes con otras clases de vertebrados y potencialmente presentes en un ancestro común.

This article describes blocking, overshadowing and latent inhibition phenomena from a comparative perspective, emphasizing their presence in spatial learning tasks. These learning phenomena, previously observed in other vertebrates and invertebrates classes, have been recently reported for the first time in amphibians, a vertebrate group with a phylogenetically ancient brain. We use the terrestrial toad Rhinella arenarum as animal model to analyze the three mentioned associative phenomena in a spatial learning situation: (1) blocking between visual cues associated to a goal, (2) overshadowing of a distant visual cue by the presence of a nearby cue, and (3) latent inhibition generated by the pre-exposure to a visual cue. All trainings were conducted in a white circular arena, using water as reward. Inside the arena, four green acrylic container were distributed in a cross shape against the side walls (only one with access to reward). On the inner walls of the circular arena they were placed several visual cues for guiding animals. In all studies described in this article toads were partially dehydrated to motivate them to search for water. In the blocking situation, experimental animals had the rewarded container signaled by a visual cue on the wall above the container. In the second phase of training other visual cue was added. The results revealed that in these animals the prior training with only one of the visual cues blocked the association of the reward with the other cue, when both cues were then presented simultaneously to indicate the position of reward. In the overshadowing situation, experimental animals had from the beginning the rewarded container signaled by two visual cues on the wall, one to 10 cm right (named near cue), and the other placed approximately 70 cm to the left (between the adjacent pool and the opposite, named far cue). The results indicated that the location of a visual cue located away from reward was overshadowed by the presence of a nearby cue. Finally, in the situation of latent inhibition, animals of pre-exposed group had five previous training sessions, where a visual cue was presented without reward. Then, when in the subsequent training this visual cue signaled the reward, animals pre-exposed needed more sessions to reach the asymptote of learning compared to other non-pre-exposed animals. Therefore, the pre-exposure to the visual cue (i.e., unreinforced exposure to the stimulus) significantly retarded the acquisition, delaying the association of this cue with the reward. Taking into account that these phenomena have been observed previously in birds and mammals, this first record in amphibians (using a spatial learning paradigm with near and far visual cues) suggests that biological mechanisms of these learning phenomena have emerged very early in the course of the evolution of fully terrestrial vertebrates and that they have been strongly preserved. With regard to the underlying neural substrates, the relationship of the hippocampal formation with the processes of learning and spatial memory is a constant in all vertebrate species studied. Analyzing the particular case of amphibians, compared with other groups of tetrapods, their telencephalon has a simple organization (in the evolutionary sense non-derived). In this aspect, the medial pallium, region in the dorso-medial quadrant of the hemisphere, is considered homologous to the mammalian hippocampal formation (based on their topographic position, its interconnections with other telencephalic areas and neurohistochemical data). Heretofore, the dependence of spatial learning with the functioning of the medial cortex was thought to be a primitive character of amniotes. However, this feature can now be extended to the group of amphibians, as recently has been observed that the lesion of the medial pallium impairs spatial learning. Thus, the evidence collected until this moment in amphibians suggests that this relationship may have emerged earlier than previously thought. On the whole, the comparative analysis of these findings will contribute to a better understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying spatial learning, thereby looking for common functional patterns with other vertebrate classes, potentially present in a common ancestor.

Bloqueo y ensombrecimiento en un grupo de vertebrados filogenéticamente antiguo: los anfibios / Blocking and overshadowing in a phylogenetically ancient vertebrate group: amphibians

En este artículo se describe el estudio de los fenómenos de bloqueo y ensombrecimiento en una tarea de aprendizaje espacial en un anfibio, el sapo terrestre Rhinella arenarum. Ambos fenómenos de aprendizaje, ampliamente observados en otras clases de vertebrados, se describen por primera vez en un grupo con un cerebro flogenéticamente antiguo, como es el caso de los anfibios. Específicamente, se observó durante el aprendizaje espacial: (1) bloqueo entre claves visuales asociadas a una meta, y (2) ensombrecimiento de una clave visual lejana por la presencia de una clave cercana. Este hecho permite sentar un precedente para estudiar posteriormente los mecanismos biológicos que rigen el aprendizaje espacial, en búsqueda de patrones funcionales comunes con otras clases de vertebrados, potencialmente presentes en un ancestro común.

This article is a study of blocking and overshadowing phenomena in a spatial learning task tested in an amphibian, the common toad Rhinella arenarum. Both phenomena, previously observed in other vertebrates, are described for the first time in a group with a phylogenetically ancient brain - the amphibians. Specifically, it was observed during spatial learning: (1) blocking between visual cues associated to a goal, and (2) overshadowing of a distant visual cue by the presence of a nearby cue. This fact is a precedent for the study of the biological mechanisms that rules spatial learning, thereby looking for common functional patterns with other vertebrates, potentially present in a common ancestor.