Does Environmental Innovation Improve Environmental Productivity?-An Empirical Study Based on the Spatial Panel Data Model of Chinese Urban Agglomerations.

Environmental productivity comprehensively measures economic growth and environmental quality. Environmental innovation is considered to be the key to solving economic and environmental problems. Therefore, discussing the impact of environmental innovation on environmental productivity will reveal its economic and environmental effects. This paper measures environmental productivity by value added per unit of pollution emissions (four types of emissions are used) using panel data of 10 Chinese urban agglomerations from 2003 to 2016 to analyze the spatial correlation of environmental productivity, and constructs a spatial panel data model to empirically test the impact of environmental innovation on environmental productivity. It was found that environmental productivity measured by value added per unit of carbon dioxide emissions (gross domestic product (GDP)/CO2) had a significant positive spatial spillover effect, and measured by value added per unit of sulfur dioxide emissions (GDP/SO2), smoke (dust) emissions (GDP/SDE), and industrial sewage emissions (GDP/IS) had a significant negative spatial spillover effect. Environmental innovation has a significant negative inhibitory effect on environmental productivity measured by GDP/SDE and GDP/IS, but no obvious effect measured by GDP/CO2 and GDP/SO2. Control variables such as economic development level, industrial agglomeration, foreign direct investment, and endowment structure factor also show significant differences in environmental productivity measured by value added per unit of pollution emissions. In addition, there are significant differences in direct effects of explanatory variables on environmental productivity of local regions and indirect effects on neighboring regions. These differences are also related to the types of pollution emissions. Therefore, policymakers should set different policies for different types of pollution and encourage different types of environmental innovation, so as to achieve reduced pollution emissions and improved environmental productivity.

Energy and Environment Performance of Resource-Based Cities in China: A Non-Parametric Approach for Estimating Hyperbolic Distance Function.

Scientific determination of energy and environmental efficiency and productivity is the key foundation of green development policy-making. The hyperbolic distance function (HDF) model can deal with both desirable output and undesirable output asymmetrically, and measure efficiency from the perspective of "increasing production and reducing pollution". In this paper, a nonparametric linear estimation method of an HDF model including uncontrollable index and undesirable output is proposed. Under the framework of global reference, the changes of energy environmental efficiency and productivity and their factorization of 107 resource-based cities in China from 2003 to 2018 are calculated and analyzed. With the classification of resource-based cities by resource dependence (RD) and region, we discuss the feature in green development quality of those cities. The results show that: (1) On the whole, the average annual growth rate of energy and environmental productivity of resource-based cities in China is 2.6%, which is mainly due to technological changes. The backward of relative technological efficiency hinders the further growth of productivity, while the scale diseconomy is the main reason for the backward of relative technological efficiency. (2) For the classification of RD, the energy and environmental efficiency of the high-dependent group are significantly lower than the other two, and the growth of productivity of the medium-dependent group is the highest. (3) In terms of classification by region, the energy and environmental efficiency of the eastern region is the highest, and that of the middle and western regions is not as good as that of the eastern and northeastern regions. The middle region shows the situation of "middle collapse" in both static efficiency and dynamic productivity change, and the main reason for its low productivity growth is the retreat of relatively pure technical efficiency. This conclusion provides practical reference for the classification and implementation of regional energy and environmental policies.

Environmental productivity in the European Union: A global Luenberger-metafrontier approach.

This paper studies environmental productivity in the European Union-28 (EU-28) by extending the methodology proposed by Oh (2010) to an additive Luenberger-metafrontier framework. The main advantage of this approach is that it allows the analyst to account for cross-country heterogeneity. Using data on GDP, environmental pressures and inputs, the change in environmental productivity and its determinants between the years 2001 and 2016 is assessed in several scenarios; heterogeneity is accounted for by differentiating between the members of the former European Union-15 (EU-15) and the new members that joined the EU-28 from the 2000s onwards. Our results show an improvement in environmental productivity over the period, fuelled by both local and global innovation effects, with some EU-15 members advancing the global environmental technology. Conversely, efficiency change has almost always been negative, pointing to a worrying failure to catch up to the best environmental technologies. Accordingly, policy measures aimed at boosting the use of green technologies are urgently needed in the EU-28.

The more-individuals hypothesis revisited: the role of community abundance in species richness regulation and the productivity-diversity relationship.

Species richness increases with energy availability, yet there is little consensus as to the exact processes driving this species-energy relationship. The most straightforward explanation is the more-individuals hypothesis (MIH). It states that higher energy availability promotes a higher total number of individuals in a community, which consequently increases species richness by allowing for a greater number of species with viable populations. Empirical support for the MIH is mixed, partially due to the lack of proper formalisation of the MIH and consequent confusion as to its exact predictions. Here, we review the evidence of the MIH and evaluate the reliability of various predictions that have been tested. There is only limited evidence that spatial variation in species richness is driven by variation in the total number of individuals. There are also problems with measures of energy availability, with scale-dependence, and with the direction of causality, as the total number of individuals may sometimes itself be driven by the number of species. However, even in such a case the total number of individuals may be involved in diversity regulation. We propose a formal theory that encompasses these processes, clarifying how the different factors affecting diversity dynamics can be disentangled.

Forest structure drives global diversity of primates.

Geographic gradients in the species richness of non-human primates have traditionally been attributed to the variation in forest productivity (related to precipitation levels), although an all-inclusive, global-scale analysis has never been conducted. We perform a more comprehensive test on the role of precipitation and biomass production and propose an alternative hypothesis - the variation in vertical structure of forest habitats as measured by forest canopy height - in determining primate species richness on a global scale. Considering the potential causal relationships among precipitation, productivity and forest structure, we arranged these variables within a path framework to assess their direct and indirect associations with the pattern of primate species richness using structural equation modelling. The analysis also accounted for the influence of spatial autocorrelation in the relationships and assessed possible historical differences among biogeographical regions. The path coefficients indicate that forest canopy height (used as a proxy for vertical forest structure) is a better predictor of primate species richness than either precipitation or productivity on both global and continental scales. The only exception was Asia, where precipitation prevailed, albeit independently from productivity or forest structure. The influence of spatially structured processes varied markedly among biogeographical regions. Our results challenge the traditional rainfall-based viewpoint in favour of forest distribution and structure as primary drivers of primate species richness, which aggregate potential effects from both climatic factors and habitat complexity. These findings may support predictions of the impact of forest removal on primate species richness.

Baseline corticosterone and stress response in the Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda) along a latitudinal gradient.

Glucocorticoids are essential for life and their secretion is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA). The HPA axis is often divided into two components: baseline glucocorticoids levels and stress response glucocorticoids levels, which are affected by changes in ambient temperature and productivity among others factors. An approximation to evaluate how a species copes with these changes is to evaluate differences of this hormone amongst populations of the same species that inhabit places ideally presenting all the possible combinations of temperature and productivity. We aimed to evaluate whether environmental temperature or productivity, represent challenges in terms of stress in the Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda). We examined circulating baseline levels of CORT and stress responses from three populations, covering the whole geographic distribution of the species across large gradients in weather conditions. If low temperature influences baseline CORT levels, we expect higher levels of this hormone in the southernmost population (higher latitude). However, if productivity is the factor that influences baseline CORT levels, we expect the contrary pattern, that is, lower values of this hormone in the southernmost population (more productive environment). We observed that baseline CORT levels presented lower values in the southernmost population, supporting the environmental productivity hypothesis. Secondly, we tested the hypothesis that individuals breeding at higher latitudes should have a lower stress response than individuals breeding at lower latitudes. Contrary to our expectations, we found that stress response did not vary among populations in any of the three years. We concluded that low environmental temperatures did not represent a stress situation for the Thorn-tailed Rayadito if food abundance was sufficient to support energetic demands.

Richness, abundance, and mass in snake assemblages from two Atlantic Rainforest sites (Ilha do Cardoso, São Paulo) with differences in environmental productivity / Riqueza, abundância e biomassa em duas comunidades de serpentes na Floresta Atlantica em sítios com diferenças na produtividade

We analyzed richness, composition and mass of snakes in two sites in the Atlantic forest of Ilha do Cardoso (25º 03' S and 47º 53' W), an island (22,500 ha), Cananéia municipality, São Paulo State, Brazil. A monthly index of arthropod availability (in mm³) was estimated in each site through capture rates in pit-fall traps. Fallen fruits were collected along trails in the study sites (mass of fruit gave an index of fruit availability) and small mammals were sampled in grids with 120 traps which covered the lowland (5.2 ha) and in the slope forests (3.6ha). The abundance and mass of small mammals were standardized for the size of each sampled area (in g.ha-1). To sample snakes we established 20 pit-fall traps in each area and performed monthly transects in four consecutive days (totaling 1000 m long) along trails in the study sites. Snakes found were measured, weighted marked and released. Abundance and total mass of snakes were standardized by the size of each area. The areas differed consistently in in the productivity of arthropods, fruits and small mammals, and also in richness, composition and total mass of snakes. We found 36 individuals (total mass = 9884 g) of 12 snake species belonging to three Families (Colubridae, Elapidae and Viperidae) in the lowland forest, whereas in the slope forest we sampled only 9 individuals of 2 species (total mass = 1820 g). Our results suggest that the area of lowland forest, showing higher productivity of arthropods, fruits and small mammals, maintains a snake community with a higher richness, diversity and biomass than its slope forest counterpart.

Nós analisamos a riqueza, a composição e a massa de serpentes em dois ambientes na Mata Atlântica da Ilha do Cardoso (25º 03' S e 47º 53' W), uma ilha (22.500 ha), localizada no município de Cananéia, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Estimamos um índice de disponibilidade de artrópodos (em mm³) em cada ambiente através da taxa de captura em armadilhas de queda estabelecidas no chão da floresta. Coletamos frutos caídos ao longo de trilhas nos ambientes estudados (a massa de frutos forneceu um índice da disponibilidade de frutos) e pequenos mamíferos foram amostrados em grades com 120 armadilhas as quais cobriram um ambiente na mata de planície (5,2 ha) e um na floresta de encosta (3,6 ha). A abundância e massa de pequenos mamíferos foi padronizada para o tamanho de cada área amostrada (em g.ha-1). Para amostrar as serpentes estabelecemos 20 armadilhas de queda em cada ambiente e mensalmente realizamos transectos durante quatro dias consecutivos (totalizando 1000 m de extensão em cada área) ao longo de trilhas nos ambientes estudados. As serpentes foram medidas, pesadas, marcadas e soltas. A abundância e massa total de serpentes foram padronizadas para o tamanho de cada área amostrada. As áreas diferiram consistentemente na produtividade de artrópodos, de frutos e de pequenos mamíferos, e também na riqueza, composição e massa total de serpentes. Encontramos um total de 36 indivíduos (massa total = 9884 g) de 12 espécies de serpentes pertencentes a três famílias (Colubridae, Elapidae and Viperidae) na mata de planície, enquanto na mata de encostaamostramos apenas 9 indivíduos de 2 espécies (massa total=1820g). Nossos resultados sugerem que a mata de planície, que teve maior produtividade de of artrópodos, de frutos e de pequenos mamíferos, mantém uma comunidade de serpentes com maior riqueza, diversidade e biomassa do que a mata de encosta.

Achievable productivities of certain CAM plants: basis for high values compared with C3 and C4 plants.

CAM species, which taxonomically are at least five times more numerous than C4 species, often grow-slowly, as is the case for various short-statured cacti and many epiphytes in several families, However, slow growth is not a necessary corollary of the CAM photosynthetic pathway, as can be appreciated by considering the energetics of CO2 fixation. For every CO2 fixed photosynthetically, C3 plants require 3 ATP and 2 NADPH, whereas the extra enzymatic reactions and compartmentation complexity for C4 plants require 4 or 5 ATP and 2 NADPH, and CAM plants require 5.5-6.5 ATP and 2 NADPH. Photorespiration in C8 plants can release some of the CO2 , fixed and also has an energetic-cost, whereas photorespiration is much less in C4 and CAM plants. Therefore, CAM plants can perform net CO2 fixation 15% more efficiently than C3 , plants, although 10% less efficiently than C4 plants. Using a simple model that assumes 8 photons per CO2 fixed and a processing time per excitation of 5 ms, a maximum instantaneous rate for net CO2 , uptake of 55 µmol m-2 s-1 is predicted. Measured maximal rates average 48µmol m-2 s-1 for leaves of six C3 species with the highest rates and 64 µmol m-2 s-1 for six such C4 species; CAM plants take up CO2 mainly at night, which is not directly related to the instantaneous rate of photon absorption. Net CO2 uptake integrated over 24 h, which is more pertinent to productivity than are instantaneous CO2 uptake rates, is similar for the three pathways, although the higher water-use efficiency of CAM plants can be an advantage during drought. Canopy architecture is crucial for the distribution of the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) over the shoot, which determines net CO2 uptake per unit ground area and hence determines productivity. Maximal productivity for idealized canopies under optimal conditions is predicted to be about 100 Mg d. wt ha-1 yr-1 (1 Mg = 1 tonne), whereas actual values of environmental factors in the field approximately halve this prediction. The influence of environmental factors on net CO2 uptake can be quantified using an environmental productivity index (EPI), which predicts the fractional limitation on net CO2 uptake and is the product of a water index, a temperature index, and a PPFD index (nutrient effects can also be included). Using EPI with a ray-tracing technique to determine the PPFD index and taking into account respiration and carbon incorporated structurally, maximal productivity of CAM plants is predicted to occur at leaf or stem area indices of 4-5. In experiments designed using such shoot area indices, annual above-ground dry-weight productivities averaging 43 Mg ha-1 yr-1 have recently been observed for certain agaves and plutyopuntias. In comparison, the measured average annual productivity of the most productive plants is 49 Mg ha-1 yr-1 for six agronomic C4 species, 35 Mg ha-1 yr-1 for sis agronomic C3 species, and 39 Mg ha-1 yr-1 for six C3 tree species. Thus, CAM plants are capable of similar high productivities, which can become especially advantageous in regions of substantial water stress. Recognition of the high potential productivity of certain CAM species under optimal environmental conditions, exceeding that of most C3 species, may increase the cultivation of such CAM plants in various areas in the future. CONTENTS Summary 183 I. Introduction 184 II. Biochemistry of C3 , C4 , and CAM plants 185 III. CO2 uptake rates 188 IV. Canopy architecture and light absorption 193 V. Measured biomass productivity 198 VI. Conclusions 200 Acknowledgement 202 References 202.