Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals the Pathogenesis of Growth-Disordered Raccoon Dog.

Microorganisms of the genus Eperythrozoon are a zoonotic chronic infectious disease with wide distribution. We found that raccoons infected with Eperythrozoon showed obvious stunting, which seriously affected the economic benefits of raccoon dogs. To investigate the pathogenesis of the raccoon dog, we used transcriptome and proteome sequencing to analyze the changes in mRNA, miRNA, and protein expression in raccoon dogs infected with Eperythrozoon and normal raccoons. The results showed that the expression levels of genes related to immunity, metabolism, and enzyme activity were significantly changed. Among these, ERLIN1, IGF1R, CREB3L1, TNS1, TENC1, and mTOR play key roles. Additionally, the miR-1268, miR-125b, miR-10-5p, and miR-10 as central miRNAs regulate the expression of these genes. Integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses revealed consistent trends in mRNA and protein changes in MYH9, FKBP1A, PRKCA, and CYP11B2. These results suggest that Eperythrozoon may contribute to the slow development of raccoons by affecting the expression of mRNAs and miRNAs, reducing their immunity and causing metabolic abnormalities.

Necessity and rationale for the proposed name changes in the classification of Mollicutes species. Reply to: 'Recommended rejection of the names Malacoplasma gen. nov., Mesomycoplasma gen. nov., Metamycoplasma gen. nov., Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov., Mycoplasmoidaceae fam. nov., Mycoplasmoidales ord. nov., Mycoplasmoides gen. nov., Mycoplasmopsis gen. nov. [Gupta, Sawnani, Adeolu, Alnajar and Oren 2018] and all proposed species comb. nov. placed therein', by M. Balish et al. (Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2019;69:3650-3653).

This response summarizes the highly disordered state of the Mollicutes taxonomy that existed until recently, where most Mollicutes taxa lacked proper circumscriptions and their names were not in accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes and illegitimate. We also summarize the comprehensive phylogenomic and comparative genomic studies forming the basis for the proposed changes in the classification of Mollicultes species. Our responses to the concerns raised by Balish et al., show that the proposed taxonomic changes do not violate any essential point of the Code. Instead the proposed name changes rectify numerous taxonomic anomalies that have long plagued the classification of Mollicutes species, leading to a better understanding of their evolutionary relationships and bringing their nomenclature in conformity with the Code.

First known case of Eperythrozoon endocarditis in China.

Eperythrozoonosis is a zoonosis transmitted from animals to humans. It is caused by bacteria in the genus Eperythrozoon. These bacteria have a high infection rate and can cause varying degrees of damage. This is the first case report of infective endocarditis caused by Eperythrozoon. The patient had a 30-day history of remittent fever accompanied by chills and progressive weakness and gradually recovered after 6 weeks of minocycline treatment.

Phylogenetic framework for the phylum Tenericutes based on genome sequence data: proposal for the creation of a new order Mycoplasmoidales ord. nov., containing two new families Mycoplasmoidaceae fam. nov. and Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov. harbouring Eperythrozoon, Ureaplasma and five novel genera.

The genus Mycoplasma, including species earlier classified in the genera Eperythrozoon and Haemobartonella, contains ~ 120 species and constitutes an extensively polyphyletic assemblage of bacteria within the phylum Tenericutes. Due to their small genome sizes and lack of unique characteristics, the relationships among the mycoplasmas/Tenericutes are not reliably discerned. Using genome sequences for 140 Tenericutes, their evolutionary relationships were examined using multiple independent approaches. Phylogenomic trees were constructed for 63 conserved proteins, 45 ribosomal proteins, three main subunits of RNA polymerase and 16S rRNA gene sequences. In all of these trees, Tenericutes species reliably grouped into four main clades designated as the "Acholeplasma", "Spiroplasma", "Pneumoniae" and "Hominis" clusters. These clades are also distinguished based on a similarity matrix constructed based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. Mycoplasma species were dispersed across 3 of these 4 clades highlighting their extensive polyphyly. In parallel, our comparative genomic analyses have identified > 100 conserved signature indels (CSIs) and 14 conserved signature proteins (CSPs), which are uniquely shared by the members of four identified clades, strongly supporting their monophyly and identifying them in molecular terms. Mycoplasma mycoides, the type species of the genus Mycoplasma, and a small number of other Mycoplasma species, formed a strongly supported clade within the "Spiroplasma" cluster. Nine CSIs and 14 CSPs reliably distinguish this clade from all other Mycoplasmatales species. The remainder of the Mycoplasmatales species are part of the "Pneumoniae" and "Hominis" clusters, which group together in phylogenetic trees. Here we are proposing that the order Mycoplasmatales should be emended to encompass only the Mycoplasma species within the "Spiroplasma" cluster and that a new order, Mycoplasmoidales ord. nov., should be created to encompass the other Mycoplasma species. The "Pneumoniae" and the "Hominis" clusters are proposed as two new families, Mycoplasmoidaceae fam. nov., which includes the genera Eperythrozoon, Ureaplasma, and the newly proposed genera Malacoplasma and Mycoplasmoides, and Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov. to contain the newly proposed genera Metamycoplasma, Mycoplasmopsis, and Mesomycoplasma. The results presented here allow reliable discernment, both in phylogenetic and molecular terms, of the members of the two proposed families as well as different described genera within these families including members of the genus Eperythrozoon, which is comprised of uncultivable organisms. The taxonomic reclassifications proposed here, which more accurately portray the genetic diversity among the Tenericutes/Mycoplasma species, provide a new framework for understanding the biological and clinical aspects of these important microbes.

Spironucleus muris and Eperythrozoon coccoides in Rodents from Northwestern Iran: Rare Infections.

BACKGROUND: Rodents perform a crucial role in dispersal of zoonosis causes globally. We aimed to investigation about infection levels of parasitic agents in rodents' population in Meshkinshahr areas, northwest of Iran from Apr to Sep 2014. METHODS: Two hundred four rodents were trapped and anaesthetized. A sample of blood was collected via cardiopuncture from each one. Thin and thick blood smears were prepared and stained with Giemsa. All stained smear were examined under light microscopy with high magnification by two expert microscopists. Every suspected unicellular observed were measured microscopically and compared with key references to diagnose. RESULTS: Captured rodents were identified as three genera including Meriones persicus, Mus musculus, Cricetulus migraturius. Protozoa identified in this study were included of Spironucleus muris and Eperythrozoon coccoides, these parasites were observed in blood smear of 0.98% of rodents. S. muris and E. coccoides were seen in M. musculus and C. migraturius, respectively. CONCLUSION: The present study increases awareness about Eperythrozoonosis in rodents and its potential transmission to domestic animals and even to human in rural districts in Iran. Moreover, the attack of Spironucleus on the mucus of colon and its systemic risk was confirmed.

Rare zoonosis (hemotrophic mycoplasma infection) in a newly diagnosed systemic lupus erythematosus patient followed by a Nocardia asteroides pneumonia

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is per se a disease characterized by suppressed immune response and thus susceptibility to various opportunistic infections. We describe the case of a 21-yearold woman who developed a rare zoonosis - hemotrophic mycoplasma infection in the initial stage of SLE, complicated with Nocardia asteroides pneumonia afterwards. Nocardia infection coincided with initiation of glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide therapy for SLE. After the treatment she recovered completely. To our knowledge the only case of human hemoplasmosis (then referred to as eperythrozoonosis) in medical literature was the one described by a group of Croatian authors 22 years ago. No cases of a hemotrophic mycoplasma infection in a SLE patient have been published up to now.

Observation on several biological characteristics of Eperythrozoon / 中国人兽共患病学报

Some biological properties of eperythrozoon, such as the influence of low temperature on their viability, their infectivity in different kinds of animals and their changes in amount of organisms in vivo were investigated in the present study. The experimental results showed that the viability of eperythrozoon could be maintained at -20 ℃ for 835 days and at 4 ℃ for 205 days. Small rats could be infected by Eperythrozoon suis, while chickens were not infected. The basic regulation on the changes in amount of organisms in animals was expressed by the fact that the percentages of erythrocytes being infected increased rapidly up to 96-98% 2-4 hours after infection, then it dropped down and followed by dropping and re-rising, attaining its climax up to 8 hours after infection. Finally, it reflected a fluctuating cycle of 14-16 hours. This results showed that eperythrozoons can maintain their viability at -20℃ for a long time and they possess relative species specificity to host with a reproduction cycle of 14-16 hours in animal body.

Comparison of the influence of Eperythrozoon infection on human and mouse erythrocytes / 中华传染病杂志

Objective To evaluate the influence of Eperythrozoon infection on human and mouse erythrocytes and to explore the pathogenesis of Eperythrozoonosis. Methods The specific gene fragment of Eperythrozoon was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from the venous blood samples of five patients infected with Eperythrozoon. The complement receptor type I (CD35) expression on erythrocytes of these five patients was determined by flow cytometry. Thereafter, the Eperythrozoons were purified from human samples and injected into mice through the tail veins. Blood smear microscopy, PCR and transmission electron microscopy were used to assure the successful infection. The hematological indicators of human and mice, such as red blood cell (RBC) count,hemoglobin (Hb) content, hematocrit and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were evaluated. All results were analyzed by t test. Results More than 80% of treated mice were confirmed to be infected with Eperythrozoon successfully. A fragment of 801 bp specific gene of Eperythrozoon was detected by PCR in samples from both infected patients and infected mice, which were not detected in samples from healthy control people or control mice. CD35 was highly expressed on the erythrocytes of infected patients, but not expressed on the erythrocytes of infected mice. Both RBC counts and Hb content dramatically decreased in infected patients and infected mice. Hematocrit and the activity of SOD also slightly decreased in infected patients and infected mice. Conclusions Eperythrozoon can spread between human and mice and destroy erythrocyte structure. Eperythrozoon can upregulate CD35 expression in human, but there is no CD35 expression in mice.

A survey on eperythrozoon infection in the population from Hangzhou city, Zhejiang province / 中华流行病学杂志

Objective To understand the situation of eperythrozoon (EPE) infection in the population from Hangzhou. Methods According to the situation in Hangzhou, a questionnaire was designed to investigate the study population. Venous blood specimens from the studied objects were collected before an Improved Wright-Giemsa Fast Dyeing method was used. Microscopic examination was applied to test their condition of infection. SPSS 13.0 software was applied for statistical analysis.Results Totally, 580 persons were under investigation in this study, including 111 with jobs ( 'occupational' ) and another 118 served as internal controls of them. The rest 351 were considered as external controls. Finally, 54 people were detected as having EPE infection with a total positive rate as 9.31%. The infection rates were 20.72%(23/111), 7.12%(25/351) and 5.08%(6/118) among the 'occupational' population, external controls and the internal controls, respectively. The difference among these three rates was statistically significant (χ2=21.60, P<0.05). There was also significant difference found in the infection rate between people who washed their hands promptly after being exposed to animal coat, raw meat or animal excrements and those who did not wash their hands in time. The infection rate of the population who washed hands with soap or other cleaning products was lower than that of those who washed hands with only water (χ2=6.76, P<0.05). We found that residential area, pet feeding, exposure to animal coat/raw meat/animal excrement, trauma were not risk factors of EPE infection. People with higher education degree had lower risk to EPE infection than those with low education. The infection rate was not different between the populations with different eating habits. The Improved Wright-Giemsa Fast Dyeing method used in this study was good in detecting the positive rates and easy to handle. Conclusion The risk factors to EPE infection were livestock contacting, washing their hands not promptly or washing hands without soap or other cleaning products after contacting.