Evolution and challenges of DDR: A policy review through the prism of Colombia's DDR experience.

Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes have undergone significant evolution in recent decades, reflecting the complex dynamics of the transition from conflict to peace. This paper presents a comparative analysis of three generations of DDR processes, illustrating the shift from a primarily security-focused approach to a comprehensive strategy that includes socioeconomic development, political participation, and community engagement. In Colombia, a country with a long history of armed conflict, the process of DDR has undergone significant changes. These changes were made to adapt to the intricate realities of war, peace agreements, and social integration. During its evolution, DDR in Colombia has encountered challenges in expanding beyond the traditional scope of disarmament and demobilization to include the crucial aspect of reintegration. This highlights the significance of addressing the varied needs of ex-combatants and ensuring their sustainable integration into civilian life. The findings emphasize the importance of flexible and context-sensitive DDR frameworks that acknowledge the distinct challenges and opportunities of each post-conflict scenario. This provides valuable insights for future peacebuilding efforts worldwide.

Moral Injury in Former Child Soldiers in Liberia.

Moral injury (MI) is a form of traumatic stress induced by perpetrating actions that transgress a person's beliefs and values. Existing research on MI has been mostly confined to military veterans, however there is reason to believe that the risk of MI among child soldiers is higher due to their age and history of abduction. This study examined the risk of MI in former child soldiers in Liberia and tested whether age and history of abduction moderate the relationship between perpetrating violence and MI based on a sample of 459 former child soldiers. Results from regression analysis confirmed that perpetrators had a higher risk of MI. However, while younger perpetrators were more vulnerable to MI, abduction history had no statistically significant moderation effect on the risk of MI. Further analysis also revealed that the moderation effects are primarily on anxiety, avoidance and negative feelings but not re-experiencing. These findings suggest that new tests and treatment models may be required for future disarmament, demobilization, rehabilitation and reintegration (DDRR) policy.

Appropriation and Spatial Order in La Fila and El Oso ETCRs (Tolima, Colombia) / Apropiación y orden espacial en los etcr la fila y el oso (tolima, colombia)

RESUMEN Tras la firma del acuerdo de paz entre el Gobierno colombiano y las FARC-EP se destinaron alrededor del país algunos Espacios Territoriales de Capacitación y Reincorporación (ETCR) como parte del proceso de reincorporación de los excombatientes, cuyo desarrollo y consecución ha tenido grandes dificultades para alcanzar lo pactado en el marco del proceso de paz (demoras, negligencias, rutas claras de reincorporación, seguridad, tensiones políticas). Con base en un trabajo de campo en dos ETCR, uno en la vereda La Fila y otro en El Oso, en el departamento del Tolima, conversamos con algunos firmantes del Acuerdo de Paz y registramos a nivel audiovisual las maneras de apropiación e intervención de estos espacios donde convergen integrantes del partido Comunes, instituciones nacionales, extranjeras y comunidades vecinas. Este trabajo propone una perspectiva sobre los ETCR como guetos de integración y exclusión de los excombatientes. Además, destacamos de qué manera la convivencia en los espacios ha tejido modos de habitar los ETCR expresados en las adecuaciones al espacio, órdenes y símbolos otorgados por firmantes de paz en proceso de reincorporación.

ABSTRACT After the signing of the peace agreement between the Colombian government and the former FARC-EP guerrilla, some Territorial Training and Reincorporation Spaces (ETCR, by its Spanish acronym) were allocated around the country as part of the reincorporation process for ex-combatants, whose development and achievement has had great difficulties in accomplishing what has been agreed in the framework of the peace process (delays, negligence, clear routes of reincorporation, security, political tensions). Based on fieldwork in two ETCRs, one in La Fila and the other in El Oso, in Tolima (Andean region, in the center-west of the country), we spoke with some signatories of the Peace Agreement. During our visit, we recorded at the audiovisual level how these spaces, where members of the Comunes party, national institutions, foreign countries, and neighboring communities converge, are being appropriated and intervened. This paper proposes a perspective on the ETCRs as ghettos of integration and exclusion of ex-combatants. In addition, we highlight how coexistence in spaces has created ways of inhabiting the ETCRs expressed in the adaptations to spaces, orders, and symbols given by peace signatories in the process of reincorporation

Supporting healthcare workers caring for ex-combatants: incentives among Colombian providers with FARC ex-combatants.

With the Peace Agreement between Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), Colombia promised healthcare to 13,000 'reincorporating' FARC ex-combatants. Shortages of healthcare workers in reincorporation camps means this promise is in danger of going unfulfilled. More information is needed to determine incentives, disincentives, and recruitment of healthcare providers to address this shortage. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with healthcare providers across FARC reincorporation camps, and a multidisciplinary team conducted analysis in NVivo12 using a team-based coding method. Twenty-four healthcare professionals from 15 camps participated, of which 75% were female. Incentives to work with FARC included improved clinical skills, professional advancement, increased comfort with FARC, and contributing to the peace process. Disincentives included poor living conditions, lack of support, biases, familial commitments, and sacrificing career opportunities. Three-fourths of the sample recommended working with FARC, and 92% reported a shortage of healthcare workers. Recruitment strategies included improved resources and specialised career development for healthcare workers, facilitating interactions between FARC and healthcare professionals outside clinical scenarios, and integrating medicine for vulnerable populations into health education. This study shows the impact that working with FARC ex-combatants can have on healthcare providers and tangible suggestions for increasing provider participation to address the healthcare worker shortage.

The Dynamics of Implicit Intergroup Biases of Victims and Ex-combatants in Post-conflict Scenarios.

Strong group identities arise in intergroup conflict scenarios and perpetuate sectarian violence even in post-conflict scenarios. In particular, out-group negative implicit associations are predictors of decreased intergroup forgiveness, as well as increased distrust and aggression against the out-group. Thus, the presence of implicit intergroup (i.e., ex-combatants and victims) biases seems to be a relevant factor in post-conflict scenarios. Here, we aimed to explore whether negative biases toward the out-group are boosted by (a) previous exposure to conflict violence or (b) identification with an armed violent group. One hundred and twenty-eight participants, 65 ex-combatants from Colombian guerrillas and 63 victims of the armed conflict, were assessed with a modified version of the implicit association test (IAT). Our results revealed that the victim group showed a significant negative bias against ex-combatants. However, no bias toward the out-group (i.e., victims) or in-group favoritism was observed in the ex-combatant group. Similarly, we found that IAT scores were not associated with sociodemographical variables (i.e., sex, years of education, or type of dwelling), the levels of combat exposure, victimization armed-conflict-related experiences, or child abuse antecedents. Our results showed an unexpected lack of in-group bias in ex-combatants, potentially triggered by the effect of current demobilization and reintegration processes. Thus, negative associations with the out-group will persist in the framework of societal condemnation of the out-group. In contrast, these negative biases will tend to be abolished when entering in conflict with larger societal reintegration processes. The results reinforce the idea that reintegration may benefit from interventions at the societal level, including all actors of the conflict. In addition, our findings highlight the importance of implementing victim interventions aimed at reducing stigma and revengeful actions in spaces of collective disarmament.

Variables psicológicas asociadas al estrés Postraumático en desmovilizados de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC-EP) / Psychological variables associated with post-traumatic stress in demobilized members of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC-EP)

Resumen: Objetivo: Evaluar la relación entre el estrés post traumático y variables psicológicas asociadas, en guerrilleros desmovilizados las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC-EP) en el departamento de Córdoba, Colombia. Método: Estudio cuantitativo, transversal, de alcance correlacional. Participaron 48 guerrilleros mayores de edad (34 hombres y 14 mujeres) pertenecientes al Frente 58 de esta agrupación, a quienes se les aplicó los cuestionarios Lista de chequeo de estrés post traumático (PCL-5), la escala de distrés psicológica de Kessler, el cuestionario de creencias básicas (CBI), la escala de la esperanza de Herth y la escala de bienestar compuesto (WBC). Resultados: Los participantes no presentaban síntomas de estrés post traumático, tenían bajos niveles de estrés y de cambios en las creencias básicas, igualmente presentaban altos niveles de esperanza y de bienestar físico y psicológico. Para detectar posibles predictores del TEPT se desarrolló un análisis de regresión múltiple en el cual el 48% de la varianza total fue explicado por el distrés psicológico y las creencias básicas. Conclusión: Se evidencia la necesidad de desarrollar estudios que profundicen en las características del estado psicológico de los ex guerrilleros de la FARC-EP, con el fin de aclarar las variables involucradas que favorecen los procesos de reintegración a la vida civil.

Abstract: Objective: To evaluate the relationship between post-traumatic stress and associated psychological variables in demobilized guerrillas from the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC-EP) in the department of Córdoba, Colombia. Method: We carried out a quantitative, cross-sectional study of correlational scope, in which 48 guerrillas of legal age participated (34 men and 14 women) belonging to the 58th Front of this group. The Post Traumatic Stress Checklist (PCL-5), the Kessler psychological distress scale, the basic beliefs questionnaire (CBI), the Herth hope scale and the composite well-being scale (WBC) were applied. Results: The participants did not present symptoms of post traumatic stress, they had low levels of stress and changes in basic beliefs, they also presented high levels of hope and physical and psychological well-being. To detect possible predictors of PTSD, a multiple regression analysis was developed in which 48% of the total variance was explained by psychological distress and basic beliefs. Conclusion: There is evidence of the need to develop studies that delve into the characteristics of the psychological state of former FARC-EP guerrillas, in order to clarify the variables involved that favor the processes of reintegration into civilian life.

Reconfiguraciones familiares de excombatientes de grupos armados ilegales en procesos de reintegración y en desmovilización voluntaria / Family Reconfigurations of Ex-Combatants of Illegal Armed Groups in Reintegration and Voluntary Demobilization Processes

Resumen Esta es una reflexión derivada de investigación abordada desde la teoría fundamentada, que busca reconocer las posibles reconfiguraciones familiares presentes en excombatientes de grupos armados ilegales en procesos de reintegración y en desmovilización voluntaria. Para ello se aplicó una entrevista semiestructurada validada por expertos, con la cual se exploraron las Transformaciones Familiares de acuerdo con tres momentos: antes (estructura), durante (curso) y después (trayectorias), y en función de las categorías: tipos de familia, dinámicas familiares, relaciones externas, influencias insurgentes previas, conflictos intrafamiliares, y conflictos social-comunitarios. Los resultados revelan que existen procesos de familiarización más que de conformación de familias durante la estancia en el grupo insurgente, al tiempo que proto-configuraciones familiares que dan pie, ya en el posconflicto y por fuera del grupo armado, a reconfiguraciones de lo familiar y de nuevas familias.

Abstract This is a reflection derived from research approached from the informed theory, which seeks to recognize the possible family reconfigurations present in ex-combatants of illegal armed groups in reintegration processes, and voluntary demobilization. To this end, a semi-structured interview validated by experts was applied, with which family transformations were explored according to three moments: before (structure), during (course), and after (trajectories), and according to the categories: family types, family dynamics, external relations, previous insurgent influences, intrafamily conflicts, and social-community conflicts. The results reveal that there are processes of familiarization without family formation during the stay in the insurgent group, while proto-family configurations that give rise, already in the post-conflict and outside the armed group, to reconfigurations of the family and new families.

Procesos de vinculación, permanencia y reintegración social de niños y niñas que participaron en grupos armados ilegales en Colombia / Processes of Involvement, Permanence, and Social Reintegration of Children Who Participated in Illegal Armed Groups in Colombia

Resumen El presente trabajo tuvo como objetivo realizar una revisión de la literatura sobre los procesos de vinculación, permanencia y reintegración de niños y niñas que participaron en grupos armados ilegales de Colombia (gai). Se revisaron 51 documentos de bases de datos especializadas y catálogos de universidades colombianas en el periodo entre 2005 y 2018. Los resultados mostraron que la mayoría de los estudios realizados se concentran en los procesos de vinculación y reintegración. Se discuten diferentes perspectivas sobre la denominación de este grupo poblacional, se mencionan las causas identificadas para la vinculación, dinámicas de interacción y ajuste a los gaidurante la permanencia. Así mismo, se analizan las vivencias en los procesos de reintegración y características de los programas de atención y se presentan algunas recomendaciones para los procesos de reintegración.

Abstract The current work aimed to review the literature on the processes of involvement, permanence and reintegration of children who participated in illegal armed groups (iag) in Colombia. Fifty-one (51) documents of specialized databases and catalogs of Colombian universities were reviewed in the period between 2005 and 2018. The results showed that most of the studies on the participation of children in armed groups are focused on the processes of involvement and reintegration. Different perspectives on the denomination of this population group are discussed, as well as the causes identified for the involvement and the dynamics of interaction and adjustment to the iagduring the stay. Besides, the experiences involved during the reintegration processes were analyzed and the characteristics of the care programs are mentioned. Finally, some recommendations for the reintegration process are presented.

Validation of the Extreme Experiences Scale (EX2) for Armed Conflict Contexts.

Psychological approaches to the study of armed conflict have focused on analyzing post-traumatic stress outcomes, and on evaluating the intensity of exposure to violent confrontation. Nevertheless, psychometrically valid tools required for measuring these traumatic experiences are scarce To validate the Extreme Experiences scale (EX2) for armed conflict contexts for its use in Colombia, and to provide a framework for validation in conflict contexts around the world This Cross-sectional aims to validate the scale with 187 participants, study of validate with 187 participants, comprising population with high exposure to conflict (former combatants and a set of armed conflict victims) and low conflict-exposed individuals (control group). Structures of two domains and 18 items were confirmed: Direct Extreme Experiences (dEX2) and Indirect Extreme Experiences (iEX2); these dimensions were also validated by expert judgment, producing 14-item version. Good levels of internal consistency were found, with a KR-20 of 0.80 for the 18-item version, and 0.77 for the 14-item. The scale differentiates between population with 'high exposure to conflict' from population with 'low exposure' (dnp > 0.5 and area under the ROC >0.90). The scale scores have significant correlation with some mental health constructs. The EX2 scale has good internal consistency, as well as structural validity with regard to exposed groups. This scale can be potentially validated for its use in countries with armed confrontation history. In future versions, the scale may include additional items in order to improve content validity.

Neurocognitive reorganization of emotional processing following a socio-cognitive intervention in Colombian ex-combatants.

Ex-combatants often exhibit atypical Emotional Processing (EP) such as reduced emphatic levels and higher aggressive attitudes. Social Cognitive Training (SCT) addressing socio-emotional components powerfully improve social interaction among Colombian ex-combatants. However, with narrow neural evidence, this study offers a new testimony. A sample of 28 ex-combatants from Colombian illegal armed groups took part in this study, split into 15 for SCT and 13 for the conventional program offered by the Governmental Reintegration Route. All of them were assessed before and after the intervention with a protocol that included an EP task synchronized with electroencephalographic recordings. We drew behavioral scores and brain connectivity (Coherency) metrics from task performance. Behavioral scores yielded no significant effects. Increased post-intervention connectivity in the delta band was observed during negative emotional processing only SCT group. Positive emotions exposed distinctive gamma band connectivity that differentiate groups. These results suggest that SCT can trigger covert neurofunctional reorganization in ex-combatants embarked on the reintegration process even when overt behavioral improvements are not yet apparent. Such covert functional changes may be the neural signature of compensatory mechanisms necessary to reshape behaviors adaptively. This novel framework may inspire cutting-edge translational research at the crossing of neuroscience, sociology, and public policy-making.

Disarming Ex-Combatants' Minds: Toward Situated Reintegration Process in Post-conflict Colombia.

Collective violence in the context of armed conflict impacts the economy, health systems, and social stability of affected countries. This is considered a complex phenomenon with interwoven biological, psychological, social, cultural, and political factors. However, most of the research on this topic still lacks suitable established integrative approaches to assess multilevel perspectives. Social, cognitive and affective mental processes (SCAMP) are critical factors that should be considered in multilevel approaches. In this article, we critically discuss some of the classically isolated approaches used in violence research, the absence of successful interventions for ex-combatants reintegration, and the specific neglect of SCAMP in these interventions. We present the case of post-conflict Colombia as a unique opportunity to study the different roots of collective violence, and we call for a more robust and situated approach to understanding of and intervention in this multifaceted phenomenon. In addition, we suggest a two-stage approach for addressing ex-combatants' reintegration programs, which considers the situated nature of post-conflict scenarios and the urgent need for evidence-based interventions. This approach focuses on the comprehensive scientific assessment of specific factors involved in violence exposure and the subsequent design of successful interventions. The implementation of this approach will contribute to the effective reintegration of individuals who have been exposed to extreme violence for more than 50 years.

Representaciones sociales: excombatientes de grupos armados al margen de la ley y proceso de reintegración / Social Representations: Ex-combatants from Illegal Armed Groups and Reintegration Processes / Representações sociais: ex-combatentes de grupos armados fora da lei e processos de reintegração

Resumen Objetivo. Describir las representaciones sociales que un grupo de estudiantes del área de la salud tienen sobre los excombatientes de grupos armados al margen de la ley en Colombia y el proceso de reintegración. Método. Se realizó un estudio cualitativo, desde un enfoque procesual de la teoría de representaciones sociales. En la investigación participaron 20 estudiantes del área de la salud. La recolección de datos se realizó con las técnicas de asociación libre para conocer el componente semántico de las representaciones, y se realizó una entrevista semiestructurada administrada de forma individual, con el fin de identificar las dimensiones de información, actitud y campo representacional. Resultados. Se presentaron connotaciones negativas en las representaciones sociales hacia los excombatientes de grupos armados ilegales y una percepción de baja expectativa al cambio. Se identificaron valoraciones positivas frente al proceso de reintegración y la influencia de los medios de comunicación con respecto a la calidad y el acceso a la información sobre estos objetos de representación. Conclusión. Los hallazgos sugieren dificultades, por parte de los participantes, para la inclusión de los grupos al margen de la ley a la sociedad, lo que implica procesos de discriminación y expectativas favorables frente al proceso de reintegración.

Abstract Objective. To describe the social views of a group of university students studying health, regarding ex-combatants from armed rebel groups in Colombia and their reintegration process. Method. A qualitative study with a procedural approach from the social representations theory was performed. The participants of the study were 20 health students. The data was collected through two techniques: free association, to develop the semantic components of the views expressed by participants, and semi-structured individual interviews, in order to identify the dimensions of information, attitude, and the representational field. Results. The study discovered a frequent prevalence of prejudices against ex-combatants and low prospects of change. A positive perception regarding reintegration of the ex-combatants and the influence of the media regarding the quality and accessibility of the information about the subjects of representation was identified. Conclusion: The findings suggest that there are difficulties in the inclusion of this societal group by the participants. Also, they expressed discrimination and positive expectations related to the reintegration process.

Resumo Escopo. Este trabalho teve por escopo descrever as representações sociais que um grupo de estudantes da área da saúde têm sobre ex-combatentes de grupos fora da lei e os processos de reintegração. Metodologia: Para isto, foi feito um estudo qualitativo, desde um enfoque processual da teoria de representações sociais. Na pesquisa participaram 20 estudantes da área da saúde. A recolecção de dados foi feita com as técnicas de associação livre para conhecer o componente semântico das representações, e foi feita uma entrevista semiestruturada administrada individualmente com o fim de identificar as dimensões de informação, atitude e campo representacional. Resultados. Apresentam-se conotações negativas nas representações sociais para os ex-combatentes de grupos armados ilegais e uma percepção de baixa expectativa de mudança. Foram identificadas valorações positivas frente a processos de reintegração e a influencia dos médios de comunicação com respeito à qualidade e aceso à informação sobre estes objetos de representação. Conclusão. As descobertas sugerem dificuldades, por parte dos participantes, para a inclusão dos grupos fora da lei à sociedade, processos de discriminação e expectativas favoráveis frente ao processo de reintegração.

Proceso de paz entre gobierno colombiano y las FARC-EP: camino hacia la reincorporación de combatientes / Peace process between colombian government and the FARC-EP: road to the reincorporation of excombattants / Processo de paz entre o governo colombiano e as FARC-EP: caminho para a reincorporação de combatentes

RESUMEN Los estándares internacionales de Desarme, Desmovilización y Reintegración son recomendaciones hechas por la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el desarrollo de modelos de reincorporación, que deben ser adaptados de acuerdo a cada contexto. Colombia hoy los aplica en la fase de implementación del acuerdo de paz entre el gobierno nacional y la insurgencia Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia - Ejército del Pueblo, con el objetivo de reincorporar a la vida civil a los excombatientes. De esta manera, el punto dos del acuerdo se enfoca en la participación política y la ampliación democrática, exponiendo la pertinencia de revisar los lineamientos generales pactados en dicho acuerdo para la creación y adecuación de instituciones que se encarguen de acompañar y vigilar la reincorporación política de los excombatientes; así como también de la puesta en marcha del tránsito a la vida, identificando así los retos a los que se enfrentan los excombatientes y las medidas que se deben tomar

ABSTRACT The international standards of Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration are recommendations made by the United Nations Organization for the development of reincorporation models, which must be adapted according to each context; Colombia today applies them in the implementation phase of the peace agreement between the national government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia-People's Army with the aim of reincorporating former combatants into civilian life; with a focus point two of the agreement that is political participation and democratic expansion, exposing the relevance of reviewing the general guidelines agreed in this agreement for the creation and adaptation of institutions that are responsible for accompanying and monitoring the political reincorporation of ex-combatants, as well as the start-up of the transit to civil life that they currently live, thus identifying the challenges that ex-combatants face and the measures that must be taken.

RESUMO Padrões internacionais para o Desarmamento, Desmobilização e Reintegração são recomendações feitas pela Organização das Nações Unidas para o desenvolvimento de modelos de reintegração, que deve ser adaptado de acordo com cada contexto. Colômbia hoje aplicada na fase de implementação do acordo de paz entre o governo nacional e as Forças Armadas Revolucionárias da Colômbia insurgência - Exército do Povo, com o objectivo de restabelecer a vida civil dos antigos combatentes. Assim, ponto dois do acordo incide sobre a participação política e ampliação democrática, expondo a relevância de rever as orientações gerais acordadas no acordo para a criação e adaptação das instituições para ser responsável para acompanhar e monitorar a reincorporação política os ex-combatentes; bem como o arranque da transição para a vida, identificando assim os desafios que os ex-combatentes enfrentam e as medidas que devem ser tomadas.

Atypical Modulations of N170 Component during Emotional Processing and Their Links to Social Behaviors in Ex-combatants.

Emotional processing (EP) is crucial for the elaboration and implementation of adaptive social strategies. EP is also necessary for the expression of social cognition and behavior (SCB) patterns. It is well-known that war contexts induce socio-emotional atypical functioning, in particular for those who participate in combats. Thus, ex-combatants represent an ideal non-clinical population to explore EP modulation and to evaluate its relation with SCB. The aim of this study was to explore EP and its relation with SCB dimensions such as empathy, theory of mind and social skills in a sample of 50 subjects, of which 30 were ex-combatants from illegally armed groups in Colombia, and 20 controls without combat experience. We adapted an Emotional Recognition Task for faces and words and synchronized it with electroencephalographic recording. Ex-combatants presented with higher assertion skills and showed more pronounced brain responses to faces than Controls. They did not show the bias toward anger observed in control participants whereby the latter group was more likely to misclassify neutral faces as angry. However, ex-combatants showed an atypical word valence processing. That is, words with different emotions yielded no differences in N170 modulations. SCB variables were successfully predicted by neurocognitive variables. Our results suggest that in ex-combatants the links between EP and SCB functions are reorganized. This may reflect neurocognitive modulations associated to chronic exposure to war experiences.

Social Cognitive Training Improves Emotional Processing and Reduces Aggressive Attitudes in Ex-combatants.

Emotional processing (EP) is a complex cognitive function necessary to successfully adjust to social environments where we need to interpret and respond to cues that convey threat or reward signals. Ex-combatants have consistently shown atypical EP as well as poor social interactions. Available reintegration programs aim to facilitate the re-adaptation of ex-combatants to their communities. However, they do not incorporate actions to improve EP and to enhance cognitive-emotional regulation. The present study was aimed at evaluating the usefulness of an intervention focused on Social Cognitive Training (SCT), which was designed to equip ex-combatants enrolled in the Social Reintegration Route with EP and social cognition skills. A group of 31 ex-combatants (mean age of 37.2, 29 men) from Colombian illegal armed groups were recruited into this study. Of these, 16 were invited to take part in a SCT and the other continued with the conventional reintegration intervention. Both groups underwent 12 training sessions in a period 12-14 weeks. They were assessed with a comprehensive protocol which included Psychosocial, Behavioral, and Emotion Processing instruments. The scores on these instruments prior to and after the intervention were compared within and between groups. Both groups were matched at baseline. Ex-combatants receiving the SCT experienced significant improvements in EP and a reduction in aggressive attitudes, effects not observed in those continuing the conventional reintegration intervention. This is the first study that achieves such outcomes in such a population using SCT intervention. We discuss the implications of such results toward better social reintegration strategies.

Psychotherapeutic Intervention in the Demobilization Process: Addressing Combat-related Mental Injuries with Narrative Exposure in a First and Second Dissemination Stage.

BACKGROUND: Depending on the exposure to traumatic stressors and combat, 20% to 50% of ex-combatants present with trauma-related disorders, and more than half of the members of armed groups have a proclivity to violence. Therefore, psychotherapeutic assistance should address both, trauma-related suffering and the lowered threshold for aggressive behaviour. OBJECTIVE: Supporting the demobilization process of ex-combatants in the eastern DR-Congo, we implemented a version of Narrative Exposure Therapy adapted for Forensic Offender Rehabilitation (FORNET). METHOD: In two successive dissemination stages (DS), local counsellors conducted FORNET. In DS1, they were trained by clinical experts, and in DS2, the by then experienced counsellors trained and supervised a second group of local counsellors (DS2). The training consisted of a 3-week workshop covering theoretical concepts and practical therapeutic skills. In DS1 and DS2, a total of 98 demobilizing combatants received an intervention; treatment-as-usual served as the control condition. Posttraumatic stress disorder, appetitive aggression, depression severity and drug dependence were assessed prior to the intervention and 6 and 12 months later; additionally, we assessed reintegration success. RESULTS: Six months post-intervention, FORNET significantly reduced Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms but had less effect on the trait of appetitive aggression; moreover, beneficial effects were found for depression severity and drug dependence as well as for reintegration indices. Treatment gains were retained at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals without previous training in psychotherapy can learn to effectively apply the brief intervention FORNET and support the demobilization process in ongoing conflicts. The study suggests that it is possible to pass down psychotherapeutic techniques over generations of counsellors. © 2015 The Authors. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. KEY PRACTITIONER MESSAGE: Posttraumatic stress symptoms, depression and clinically relevant levels of drug dependence can effectively be reduced with a version of Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) adapted for Forensic Offender Rehabilitation (FORNET). The intervention is effective in the context of ongoing conflict. Individuals without previous training in psychotherapy can learn to effectively apply the brief intervention FORNET. It is possible to pass down psychotherapeutic techniques like FORNET over generations of counsellors. Psychotherapeutic interventions like FORNET may facilitate the transition to peace in war-torn regions.

[Analysis of catamnesis combatants and pensioners of the Ministry of internal Affairs with mental disorders].

We analysed catamnesis of combatants and pensioners of the Ministry of internal Affairs (MIA) of Russia, dismissed in connection with the presence of mental disorder impeding further passage of service. It is shown that within three years after the dismissal of the combatants noted the negative clinical dynamics of mental state with a disability, the formation of a concomitant alcohol dependence. They have expressed social problems as divorce, do manual work low-skilled or do not work, which requires improved approaches to providing them with medical psychological and social assistance, with regular observation. The establishment of mental health Centers in the departmental regional health units of the Ministry of internal Affairs of Russia on the basis of existing centres of psychophysiological diagnostics, system-monitoring the mental state of the combatants with mental disorders and improve the quality of provision of medical assistance.

Interacción social conflictiva y problemas de salud mental en redes personales de ex combatientes ilegales en Colombia / Conflictive social interactions and mental health issues in personal networks of Colombian unlawful ex-combatants

Interacción conflictiva implica relaciones interpersonales en las que existen molestias o enojo. Este estudio abordó la existencia de diferencias significativas en la estructura de redes personales y problemas de salud mental de ex combatientes ilegales colombianos con y sin conflictos relacionales. Se evaluó a 106 individuos de tres ciudades mediante un estudio comparativo, analizando las propiedades estructurales de sus redes y el registro de problemas de sintomatología somática, ansiedad-insomnio, disfunción social y depresión grave. Las redes obtuvieron rendimiento moderado de sus indicadores, con mayor reporte de conflictos en aquellas con más cercanía y menor densidad relacional. Los problemas de ansiedad-insomnio y depresión fueron más comunes en redes con conflictos interpersonales. Las interacciones sociales mediadas por el conflicto parecen tener participación en los problemas de salud mental, por lo cual se sugiere incluir estrategias que fomenten interacciones cordiales dentro de las acciones tendientes a la adecuada reintegración de esta población.

A conflictive interaction implies interpersonal relationships where discomfort or anger feelings exist; this study addresses the existence of significant differences in the structure of personal nets and mental health problems in Colombian unlawful ex-combatants with and without relationships conflicts. 106 individuals were evaluated in three cities throughout a comparative study, analyzing the structural properties of their personal networks and the registration of problems as somatic symptomatology, anxiety-insomnia, social dysfunction and severe depression. The networks shown moderate performance of their indicators, reporting higher number of conflicts in those where the closeness is higher and the relational density is lower. Anxiety-Insomnia and depression problems were more common in networks with interpersonal conflicts. Findings suggest that social interactions mediated by the conflict seem to have participation in mental health problems, reason why it is suggested to include strategies that encourage positive interactions related to the proper reintegration of this population.

Posttraumatic stress disorder according to DSM-5 and DSM-IV diagnostic criteria: a comparison in a sample of Congolese ex-combatants.

BACKGROUND: Compared to DSM-IV, the criteria for diagnosing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been modified in DSM-5. OBJECTIVE: The first aim of this study was to examine how these modifications impact rates of PTSD in a sample of Congolese ex-combatants. The second goal of this study was to investigate whether PTSD symptoms were associated with perpetrator-related acts or victim-related traumatic events. METHOD: Ninety-five male ex-combatants in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo were interviewed. Both the DSM-IV and the DSM-5 PTSD symptom criteria were assessed. RESULTS: The DSM-5 symptom criteria yielded a PTSD rate of 50% (n=47), whereas the DSM-IV symptom criteria were met by 44% (n=42). If the DSM-5 would be set as the current "gold standard," then DSM-IV would have produced more false negatives (8%) than false positives (3%). A minority of participants (19%, n=18) indicated an event during which they were involved as a perpetrator as their most stressful event. RESULTS of a regression analysis (R (2)=0.40) showed that, after accounting for the number of types of traumatic events, perpetrated violent acts were not associated with the symptom severity of PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate that more diagnostic cases were produced with the DSM-5 diagnostic rules than were dropped resulting in an increase in PTSD rates compared to the DSM-IV system. The missing association between PTSD symptoms and perpetrated violent acts might be explained by a potential fascinating and excited perception of these acts.

Emotional processing in Colombian ex-combatants and its relationship with empathy and executive functions.

In this work, the neural correlates of emotional processing in Colombian ex-combatants with different empathy profiles were compared to normal controls matched for age, gender and educational level. Forty ex-combatants and 20 non ex-combatants were recruited for this study. Empathy levels as well as executive functions were measured. Empathy level was used to create three groups. Group 1 (G1) included ex-combatants with normal empathy scores, and Group 2 included ex-combatants with low scores on at least one empathy sub-scales. In control group (Ctrl), participants with no antecedents of being combatants and with normal scores in empathy were included. Age, gender, educational and intelligence quotients level were controlled among groups. event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded while individuals performed an affective picture processing task that included positive, neutral and negative emotional stimuli, which elicit an early modulation of emotion categorization (Early Posterior Negativity (EPN)) and late evaluative process (LPP). EPN differences were found among affective categories, but no group effects were observed at this component. LPP showed a main effect of category and group (higher amplitudes in ex-combatants). There was an inverse correlation between empathy and executive functions scores and ERPs. Results are discussed according to the impact of emotional processing on empathy profile.