[Clinical Validation of Chest X-ray Educational Content for Radiography Students Using Gaze Information].

PURPOSE: Radiography training for students in colleges of radiology should be based on real clinical situations. The purpose of this study was to verify the clinical validity of our originally developed scenarios for chest X-ray training and the instructional contents using gaze information of experienced radiology technologists (RTs). METHODS: We divided 8 RTs with different experiences into an evaluator group (3 RTs) and a subject group (5 RTs). The evaluator group created a validation model consisting of 31 items, a chest X-ray scenario, instructional contents, and gaze attention objects during the scenario. The subject group simulated chest X-ray wearing an eye tracker. The evaluator group evaluated fit rates of the validation model to subjects' procedures based on gaze information to verify the clinical validity of the validation model. RESULTS: The subject group procedures did not deviate from the scenario. We obtained a fit rate of 91.6±6.70%. CONCLUSION: Our validation model showed more than 90% fitting with the chest X-ray techniques of five RTs with different backgrounds. This result suggested that the scenario and instructional contents in this study had clinical validity.

Distinct processing of the state prediction error signals in frontal and parietal correlates in learning the environment model.

Goal-directed reinforcement learning constructs a model of how the states in the environment are connected and prospectively evaluates action values by simulating experience. State prediction error (SPE) is theorized as a crucial signal for learning the environment model. However, the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. Here, using electroencephalogram, we verified in a two-stage Markov task two neural correlates of SPEs: an early negative correlate transferring from frontal to central electrodes and a late positive correlate over parietal regions. Furthermore, by investigating the effects of explicit knowledge about the environment model and rewards in the environment, we found that, for the parietal correlate, rewards enhanced the representation efficiency (beta values of regression coefficient) of SPEs, whereas explicit knowledge elicited a larger SPE representation (event-related potential activity) for rare transitions. However, for the frontal and central correlates, rewards increased activities in a content-independent way and explicit knowledge enhanced activities only for common transitions. Our results suggest that the parietal correlate of SPEs is responsible for the explicit learning of state transition structure, whereas the frontal and central correlates may be involved in cognitive control. Our study provides novel evidence for distinct roles of the frontal and the parietal cortices in processing SPEs.

Explicit and implicit memory for the QWERTY keyboard: the role of motor simulation and deictic gestures.

In three experiments, we investigated explicit and implicit knowledge about the location of letters on the QWERTY keyboard in young students, and the mechanisms involved. Participants completed a verbal report task in which they were asked to locate the 21 letters of the Italian alphabet on a blank QWERTY keyboard (explicit memory). Subsequently, they carried out a motor production task, i.e., typing letters on a blank keyboard (implicit memory). Consistent with previous studies and several theories emphasizing the importance of implicit knowledge in typing, results showed that explicit knowledge about the QWERTY keyboard is systematically worse than procedural knowledge (Experiment 1). These two types of knowledge, however, are related. Second, we showed that explicit memory for letter position was affected when participants were engaged in a secondary task that required hands/arms movements. Specifically, loading participants' sensorimotor resources led to a decrease in explicit memory performance when the secondary task required hand/arm movements (hand/arms tapping) compared to when it required legs-feet movements (control condition). This result suggests that explicit knowledge is modulated by sensorimotor simulation (Experiment 2). Third, compared to a purely verbal response, pointing to the key on the keyboard did not improve explicit memory accuracy (Experiment 3). Taken together, the results indicate that sensorimotor simulation, and not just gestures, modulates the accessibility to explicit mental representations of verbal/spatial material, like letters on a keyboard.

Reduced Implicit but not Explicit Knowledge of Cross-Situational Statistical Learning in Developmental Dyslexia.

Although statistical learning (SL) has been studied extensively in developmental dyslexia (DD), less attention has been paid to other fundamental challenges in language acquisition, such as cross-situational word learning. Such investigation is important for determining whether and how SL processes are affected in DD at the word level. In this study, typically developed (TD) adults and young adults with DD were exposed to a set of trials that contained multiple spoken words and multiple pictures of individual objects, with no information about word-referent correspondences provided within a trial. Nonetheless, cross-trial statistical relations could be exploited to learn word-referent mappings. The degree of within-trial reference uncertainty and the novelty of to-be-learned objects (novel or familiar) were varied under different learning conditions. The results show that across all conditions, young adults with DD were significantly impaired in their ability to exploit cross-trial regularities in co-occurring visual-auditory streams to discover word-referent mappings. Observed impairments were most pronounced when within-trial reference uncertainty was the highest. Subjective measures of knowledge awareness revealed greater development of implicit but not explicit knowledge in the TD group than in the DD group. Together, these findings suggest that the SL deficit in DD affects fundamental language learning challenges at the word level and points to greater reliance on explicit processes due to impaired implicit associative learning among individuals with DD. Such a deficit is likely to influence spoken language acquisition, and in turn affect literacy skills, in people with DD.

Knowledge transfer between physicians from different geographical regions in China's online health communities.

Online Health Communities (OHCs) are a type of self-organizing platform that provide users with access to social support, information, and knowledge transfer opportunities. The medical expertise of registered physicians in OHCs plays a crucial role in maintaining the quality of online medical services. However, few studies have examined the effectiveness of OHCs in transferring knowledge between physicians and most do not distinguish between the explicit and tacit knowledge transferred between physicians. This study aims to demonstrate the cross-regional transfer characteristics of medical knowledge, especially tacit and explicit knowledge. Based on data collected from 4716 registered physicians on Lilac Garden (DXY.cn), a leading Chinese OHC, Exponential Random Graph Models are used to (1) examine the overall network and two subnets of tacit and explicit knowledge (i.e., clinical skills and medical information), and (2) identify patterns in the knowledge transferred between physicians, based on regional variations. Analysis of the network shows that physicians located in economically developed regions or regions with sufficient workforces are more likely to transfer medical knowledge to those from poorer regions. Analysis of the subnets demonstrate that only Gross Domestic Product (GDP) flows are supported in the clinical skill network since discussions around tacit knowledge are a direct manifestation of physicians' professional abilities. These findings extend current understanding about social value creation in OHCs by examining the medical knowledge flows generated by physicians between regions with different health resources. Moreover, this study demonstrates the cross-regional transfer characteristics of explicit and tacit knowledge to complement the literature on the effectiveness of OHCs to transfer different types of knowledge.

Development of a Knowledge Graph for Automatic Job Hazard Analysis: The Schema.

In the current practice, an essential element of safety management systems, Job Hazard Analysis (JHA), is performed manually, relying on the safety personnel's experiential knowledge and observations. This research was conducted to create a new ontology that comprehensively represents the JHA knowledge domain, including the implicit knowledge. Specifically, 115 actual JHA documents and interviews with 18 JHA domain experts were analyzed and used as the source of knowledge for creating a new JHA knowledge base, namely the Job Hazard Analysis Knowledge Graph (JHAKG). To ensure the quality of the developed ontology, a systematic approach to ontology development called METHONTOLOGY was used in this process. The case study performed for validation purposes demonstrates that a JHAKG can operate as a knowledge base that answers queries regarding hazards, external factors, level of risks, and appropriate control measures to mitigate risks. As the JHAKG is a database of knowledge representing a large number of actual JHA cases previously developed and also implicit knowledge that has not been formalized in any explicit forms yet, the quality of JHA documents produced from queries to the database is expectedly higher than the ones produced by an individual safety manager in terms of completeness and comprehensiveness.

The influence of leader-signaled knowledge hiding on tourism employees' work withdrawal behavior: A moderated mediating model.

Even though organizations encourage the dissemination of knowledge and information among organizational members, the phenomenon of knowledge hiding still exists widely in organizations. The consequences of leader-signaled knowledge hiding are more destructive to the workplace than the consequences of employees' knowledge hiding. It is particularly necessary to explore the influence mechanism of leader-signaled knowledge hiding on employees' work behavior. Drawing on Conservation of Resources theory, this study establishes a moderated mediation model with emotional exhaustion as a mediating variable and supervisor-subordinate guanxi as a moderating variable. This study focuses on the consequences of leader-signaled knowledge hiding and divides leader-signaled knowledge hiding into self-practiced knowledge hiding and explicit knowledge hiding. Based on the results of 440 questionnaires from tourism employees, it is shown that leader-signaled knowledge hiding has a positive impact on employees' work withdrawal behavior. Specifically, leader's self-practiced knowledge hiding has a greater direct impact on employees' work withdrawal behavior, while leader's explicit knowledge hiding has a greater direct impact on employees' emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion plays a key mediating role in the relationship between leader-signaled knowledge hiding (i.e., self-practiced knowledge hiding and explicit knowledge hiding) and employees' work withdrawal behavior. Supervisor-subordinate guanxi significantly moderates the positive relationship between leader-signaled knowledge hiding (i.e., self-practiced hiding and explicit knowledge hiding) and employees' emotional exhaustion. This study is an extension of previous research on knowledge hiding. The results provide a reference for leaders to deal with knowledge hiding and improve organizational knowledge management ability.

The moderating effect of psychological trust on knowledge spillovers and firms' open innovation.

Psychological trust is an important link in building interpersonal relationships and has a significant impact on the attitude and behavior of knowledge subjects. Based on the characteristics of knowledge attributes, this paper analyzed the data of 180 high-tech firms in China from 2014 to 2020 to deeply explore the effects of explicit knowledge spillover and tacit knowledge spillover on firms' open innovation, and the moderating effect of psychological trust on the relationship between the two. It is found that: first, explicit knowledge spillover and tacit knowledge spillover have an inverted U-shaped relationship with firms' open innovation, i.e., the effect of open innovation increases and then decreases as the degree of knowledge spillover increases; second, psychological trust positively moderates the non-linear relationship between knowledge spillover and firms' open innovation. This paper provides a rational explanation of firms' management behavior from a psychological perspective, and enriches and expands the research related to knowledge spillover, firms' open innovation and psychological trust. It is suggested that firms should pay more attention to inter-organizational trust relationships and pay attention to the psychological growth and development of knowledge employees to improve open innovation in firms.

Reanalyzing the Maia and McClelland (2004) Empirical Data: How Do Participants Really Behave in the Iowa Gambling Task?

Background: Since 2007, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) has been a standardized clinical assessment tool for assessing decision behavior in 13 psychiatric/neurological conditions. After the publication of Maia and McClelland's (1) article, there were two responses in 2005 from Bechara et al. and Maia and McClelland, respectively, discussing whether implicit emotion or explicit knowledge influences the development of foresighted decision strategies under uncertain circumstances (e.g., as simulated in the IGT). Methods and Results: We reanalyze and verify the data obtained by Maia and McClelland (1) in their study "What participants really know in the Iowa Gambling Task" and find that decision-makers were lured into shortsighted decisions by the prospect of immediate gains and losses. Conclusion: Although the findings of this reanalysis cannot support any arguments concerning the effect of either implicit emotion or explicit knowledge, we find evidence that, based on the gain-loss frequency in the IGT, participants behave myopically. This is consistent with most IGT-related articles (58 out of 86) in Lee et al.'s (2) cross-cultural review. Alternatively, under uncertain circumstances, there is probably no such thing as foresighted decision strategy irrespective of the proposed mechanisms of implicit emotion or explicit knowledge.

Dynamic development of intuitions and explicit knowledge during implicit learning.

Implicit learning refers to learning without conscious awareness of the content acquired. Theoretical frameworks of human cognition suggest that intuitions develop based on incomplete perceptions of regularity during implicit learning and, in turn, lead to the development of more explicit, consciously-accessible knowledge. Surprisingly, however, this putative information processing pathway (i.e., implicit learning ➔ intuition ➔ explicit knowledge) has yet to be empirically demonstrated. The present study investigated the relationship between implicit learning, intuitions, and explicit knowledge using a modified Serial Reaction Time Task. Results indicate that intuitions of implicitly-learned patterns emerge prior to the development of explicit knowledge. Moreover, intuition timing and accuracy were significantly associated with accuracy of explicit reports. We did not, however, find that stronger implicit learners developed more accurate intuitions. Our findings suggest a crucial role of intuition in the formation of explicit knowledge from implicit learning.

Expounding the knowledge conversion processes within the occupational safety and health management system (OSH-MS) using concept mapping.

Objectives. Given the efforts made to incorporate knowledge management into the occupational safety and health management system (OSH-MS), this research attempts to illustrate how the knowledge conversion processes are accomplished within key elements of the OSH-MS. Methods. This study uses concept mapping (CM) as an integrated approach for mirroring participants' viewpoints about the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge in the OSH-MS. OSH and knowledge management experts of the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) and its subdivisions were invited to complete the CM process. Results. Interpretation of the maps and graphical representations generated indicates that the concepts within the key elements of the OSH-MS are sorted into different clusters, including Knowledge Application, Knowledge Dissemination, Knowledge Socialization and Knowledge Presentation. Regarding the participants' ratings, the Knowledge Application cluster is rated as the most important, and Knowledge Socialization is rated as the most prevalent. Conversely, Knowledge Presentation is rated the least important and prevalent. Conclusions. The results simulated in MATLAB version R2018a and JMP version 13.2 help in better understanding the interplay between tacit and explicit knowledge in the key elements of the OSH-MS and clarify the potential programmable areas to improve organizational performance.

Appraising strategic adaptive management as a process of organizational learning.

Adaptive management is a systematic approach for linking learning with implementation to facilitate ongoing improvement in natural resource management. The idea of learning from experience and adapting subsequent policies, strategies and actions, is intuitively appealing. However, application of adaptive management has been hindered by several obstacles, including a paucity of documented lessons from existing adaptive management practices and inadequate attention to the complex social aspects of learning. Here we address these two impediments through (i) a case study of an established version of adaptive management and its application in the context of protected area management plans, and (ii) its critical comparison and conceptual integration with the seminal theory of organizational knowledge creation (TOKC), which emphasizes the social aspects of learning. As case study, we focus on Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM), which has been iteratively developed and implemented by South African National Parks for more than 20 years. We used TOKC as a conceptual sounding board to reflect on and appraise the learning that takes place through SAM. A comparison of the main steps of the SAM cycle with corresponding stages outlined by TOKC revealed remarkable complementarity between these two approaches, but also important differences. The conceptual comparison deepened our understanding of SAM's learning performance as well as potential, revealing strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for improvement. Key insights include that valuable and different forms of learning takes place during each step of the SAM cycle. This learning can be enhanced through careful attention to approaches for creating, sharing and making explicit the tacit knowledge of individuals. Furthermore, dialogue and co-learning with stakeholders should be maintained beyond the visioning and objectives setting step of SAM. Based on insights gained, we developed a new and complementary conceptualization of SAM, as a spiraling process of organizational learning enabled by the interplay between tacit and explicit forms of knowledge, which in turn is mediated by different types of social interactions, media and engagement with practice. We believe that this conceptualization can help to better acknowledge and enable learning as one of the most fundamental purposes and outcomes of SAM, and adaptive management more generally.

Corrigendum: The Bilingual Native Speaker Competence: Evidence From Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge Using Elicited Production, Sentence-Picture Matching, and Pupillometry.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.717379.].

Innovative Enterprises Development and Employees' Knowledge Sharing Behavior in China: The Role of Leadership Style.

Leadership is generally considered helpful for team knowledge sharing. However, differences in the influence of different leadership styles on team knowledge sharing mechanism is still unclear. To understand different leadership style foster team knowledge sharing, this study focuses on leader-follower trust during team interactions. From the perspective of leadership as social problem solving, we argue that transformational leadership and authoritative leadership are different linked to team knowledge sharing. Through the collection of a sample of 791 valid questionnaires in China, we used the structural equation model to test the theoretical model. Results showed that: (1) Transformational leadership was positively linked to explicit and implicit knowledge sharing, while authoritative leadership was positively linked to explicit knowledge sharing. (2) Trust tendency mediates the relationship between authoritative leadership and knowledge sharing. (3) Supportive and bureaucratic culture moderate the influence of trust tendency on implicit knowledge sharing, such that the positive relationship is stronger for the low-quality of supportive culture and the high-quality of bureaucratic culture. Finally, The study's implication for theory and practice were discussed, its limitations were identified, and directions for future research were suggested.

Influence Factors for Decision-Making Performance of Suicide Attempters and Suicide Ideators: The Roles of Somatic Markers and Explicit Knowledge.

Impaired decision-making has been observed in suicide attempters during the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Decision-making performance is influenced by somatic markers and explicit knowledge, but it is still unclear of the influencing role on decision-making performance in suicidal individuals. We aimed to investigate whether there is a decision-making deficit in suicide attempters, suicide ideators, as well as the distinct roles of somatic markers and explicit knowledge wherein. Thirteen suicide attempters, 23 suicide ideators, and 19 healthy controls performed the IGT. Both somatic markers (by the skin conductance responses, SCRs) and explicit knowledge (by the subjective experience rating and a list of questions) were recorded. No significant differences were found among the three groups on IGT performance, explicit knowledge, and anticipatory SCRs. IGT Performance of suicide attempters was positively correlated with explicit knowledge index while behavior performance was positively associated with the SCRs in healthy controls. These results indicate that the suicide attempters seem to apply a compensatory strategy by mostly utilizing explicit knowledge to perform normally as healthy controls in the IGT.

The Bilingual Native Speaker Competence: Evidence From Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge Using Elicited Production, Sentence-Picture Matching, and Pupillometry.

The present pilot study investigated potential effects of early and late child bilingualism in highly proficient adult bilinguals. It has been shown that some early second language (eL2) speakers stagnate when it comes to complex linguistic phenomena and that they display subtle difficulties in adulthood. Therefore, we have chosen the complex structure of double object constructions. We investigate the long-term achievement in a combined-method approach using elicited production, explicit comprehension by sentence-picture matching and a measure of implicit linguistic knowledge, namely pupillometry. This eye tracking method is suitable for measuring implicit reactions of the pupils to unexpected or ungrammatical stimuli. For production, ditransitive structures were elicited by means of a game. For comprehension, a sentence-picture matching task was conducted. Two pictures were shown on a monitor that were equal with respect to the involved objects, but the thematic roles of direct and indirect objects were interchanged. Items were controlled for length, gender, animacy, semantic likelihood and word order. Reaction times and accuracy scores were analyzed. To this end, N = 18 bilingual adult speakers of German (+ another language, mean age: 26.5) with different ages of onset participated in this study and were compared to N = 26 monolingual German adult speakers (mean age 23.9). All participants had a proficiency of German above 89% correct in placement and cloze tests. Results show fully comparable productive and comprehensive competencies in monolinguals and bilinguals including the reaction times in the sentence-picture matching task and a word order effect on the reaction times in both groups. In the pupillometry task, we found monolinguals and bilinguals to be sensitive to differing conditions with respect to grammatical and ungrammatical utterances. However, we find between group differences in pupil dilations in that bilinguals react differently to strong grammatical violations than monolinguals. These results are discussed with respect to the term of native speaker competence and the variation within both groups.

'Light up for all' - Building Knowledge on Universal Design Through Direct User Contact in Design Workshops.

For the creation of inclusive design solutions, designers require relevant knowledge about a diversity of users throughout the design process. Besides understanding users' needs and expectations, the ways in which users perceive and experience the environment contain valuable knowledge for designers. Since users' perceptions and experiences are mainly tacit by nature, they are much more difficult to communicate and therefore more difficult to externalize. Hence, more insight is needed into the ways designers can build knowledge on Universal Design through direct user contact. In a project called 'Light up for all' architecture students are asked to design a light switch and socket, elegant, usable and understandable to the greatest extent possible by everyone. Two workshops with user/experts are organized in the first stages of the design process in which students could gain insight into users' experiences and perceptions through direct contact. Three data collection techniques are used to analyze the teams' design processes: (1) a design diary, (2) observations of the workshops and (3) a focus group. By means of analyzing collected qualitative data, we have identified three different design aspects that affect designers' UD knowledge building process. First, findings give indications on values and limitations of working with selected design artefacts when externalizing users' experiences. Second, the value of stories clearly affected designers' deeper understanding about users' experiences. Finally, results show that in some situations, designers encountered contradictory information between observations and verbal conversations. These insights may help researchers to better understand designers' process of building knowledge on UD from users' experiences and perceptions, which may result in better incorporating users' experiences when designing for everyone.

Minimal interplay between explicit knowledge, dynamics of learning and temporal expectations in different, complex uni- and multisensory contexts.

While temporal expectations (TE) generally improve reactions to temporally predictable events, it remains unknown how the learning of temporal regularities (one time point more likely than another time point) and explicit knowledge about temporal regularities contribute to performance improvements; and whether any contributions generalise across modalities. Here, participants discriminated the frequency of diverging auditory, visual or audio-visual targets embedded in auditory, visual or audio-visual distractor sequences. Temporal regularities were manipulated run-wise (early vs. late target within sequence). Behavioural performance (accuracy, RT) plus measures from a computational learning model all suggest that learning of temporal regularities occurred but did not generalise across modalities, and that dynamics of learning (size of TE effect across runs) and explicit knowledge have little to no effect on the strength of TE. Remarkably, explicit knowledge affects performance-if at all-in a context-dependent manner: Only under complex task regimes (here, unknown target modality) might it partially help to resolve response conflict while it is lowering performance in less complex environments.

Leading Organizational Learning.

Description A learning organization engages their teams to garner a commitment to learning and leverage organizational knowledge thereby positioning themselves better for future innovation. Organizations that focus on interrelated learning at the individual, group or team and organizational levels are optimally positioned to maximize organizational competitiveness in dynamic, competitive environments. A leader's responsibility is to devote more effort to guide the organization's continuous development, members, and themselves. Through constant learning, the organization can leverage learning to create competitive strategies while cultivating transformative opportunities. However, successful learning outcomes are not the product of any individual or leader, and instead, the collective work of all involved. Leaders focused on organizational learning realize the dynamic nature of operating a business in a competitive environment and encourage members to seek feedback, new educational opportunities, open communication, and innovative problem-solving strategies, the combination of which enable the collective organization to not just survive but thrive.

Asymmetrical learning and memory for acquired gain versus loss associations.

Neutral stimuli can acquire value when people learn to associate them with positive or negative outcomes (i.e., gain versus loss associations). Acquired value has been shown to affect how gain and loss associated stimuli are attended, remembered, and acted upon. Here we investigate a potential and previously unreported learning asymmetry in the acquisition of gain and loss associations that may have consequences for subsequent cognitive processing. In our first study, we provide meta-analytic evidence that in probabilistic learning tasks that pair neutral stimuli with intermixed win, loss, and no-change outcomes, people learn win-associations better than loss-associations despite the symmetrical task structure and symmetrical outcome probabilities. Then in two empirical studies, we demonstrate that this learning asymmetry is evident when acquiring gain versus loss associations to gray-scale landscape images whether participants earn points or money (Study 2), and whether or not they receive explicit instructions about the outcome contingencies (Study 3). Furthermore, performance on a post-learning source recognition task was also asymmetrical: explicit knowledge of associated outcomes was superior for optimal gain than optimal loss scenes. These findings indicate the acquisition of gain and loss associations need not be equivalent, despite symmetrical outcome probabilities, equivalent numbers of learning trials, and a constant learning criterion. Consequently, learning asymmetries could contribute to valence and optimality differences in subsequent cognitive processing.