Modified ventriculoperitoneal shunt applied to temporary external ventricular drainage.

External ventricular drainage (EVD) is a common procedure in neurosurgical practice. Presently, the three methods used most often include direct EVD (dEVD), long-tunneled external ventricular drains (LTEVDs), and EVD via the Ommaya reservoir (EVDvOR). But they possess drawbacks such as limited duration of retention, vulnerability to iatrogenic secondary infections, and challenges in regulating drainage flow. This study aimed to explore the use of a modified ventriculoperitoneal shunt (mVPS)-the abdominal end of the VPS device was placed externally-as a means of temporary EVD to address the aforementioned limitations. This retrospective cohort study, included 120 cases requiring EVD. dEVD was performed for 31 cases, EVDvOR for 54 cases (including 8 cases with previously performed dEVD), and mVPS for 35 cases (including 6 cases with previously performed EVDvOR). The one-time success rate (no need for further other EVD intervention) for dEVD, EVDvOR, and mVPS were 70.97%, 88.89%, and 91.42%, dEVD vs EVDvOR (P < 0.05), dEVD vs mVPS (P < 0.05), EVDvOR vs mVPS (P > 0.05). Puncture needle displacement or detachment was observed in nearly all cases of EVDvOR, while no such complications have been observed with mVPS. Apart from this complication, the incidence of postoperative complications was 35.48%, 14.81%, and 8.5%, dEVD vs EVDvOR (P < 0.05), dEVD vs mVPS (P < 0.05), EVDvOR vs mVPS (P > 0.05). Mean postoperative retention for EVD was 14.68 ± 9.50 days, 25.96 ± 15.14 days, and 82.43 ± 64.45 days, respectively (P < 0.001). In conclusion, mVPS significantly extends the duration of EVD, which is particularly beneficial for patients requiring long-term EVD.

External ventricular drainage in pediatric patients: indications, management, and shunt conversion rates.

PURPOSE: Placement of an external ventricular drainage (EVD) is one of the most frequent procedures in neurosurgery, but it has specific challenges and risks in the pediatric population. We here investigate the indications, management, and shunt conversion rates of an EVD. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the data of a consecutive series of pediatric patients who had an EVD placement in the Department of Neurosurgery at Hannover Medical School over a 12-year period. A bundle approach was introduced to reduce infections. Patients were categorized according to the underlying pathology in three groups: tumor, hemorrhage, and infection. RESULTS: A total of 126 patients were included in this study. Seventy-two were male, and 54 were female. The mean age at the time of EVD placement was 5.2 ± 5.0 years (range 0-17 years). The largest subgroup was the tumor group (n = 54, 42.9%), followed by the infection group (n = 47, 37.3%), including shunt infection (n = 36), infected Rickham reservoir (n = 4), and bacterial or viral cerebral infection (n = 7), and the hemorrhage group (n = 25, 19.8%). The overall complication rate was 19.8% (n = 25/126), and the total number of complications was 30. Complications during EVD placement were noted in 5/126 (4%) instances. Complications during drainage time were infection in 9.5% (12 patients), dysfunction in 7.1% (9 patients), and EVD dislocation in 3.2% (4 patients). The highest rate of complications was seen in the hemorrhage group. There were no long-term complications. Conversion rates into a permanent shunt system were 100% in previously shunt-dependent patients. Conversion rates were comparable in the tumor group (27.7%) and in the hemorrhage group (32.0%). CONCLUSION: EVD placement in children is an overall safe and effective option in children. In order to make further progress, carefully planned prospective and if possible randomized studies are needed controlling for multivariable aspects.

Risk factors for hemorrhage in patients with long-term aspirin therapy undergoing emergency external ventricular drainage/intracranial pressure probe placement.

Background: Studies have been inconclusive on the risk for hemorrhage in patients with a history of aspirin use who underwent emergency external ventricular drainage (EVD)/intracranial pressure (ICP) probe placement. The aim of this study was to explore hemorrhage-related risk factors in order to reduce the risk for hemorrhage in these patients. Methods: Between July 2014 and July 2020, patients were retrospectively divided into EVD/ICP-related hemorrhage and non-hemorrhage groups. The collected data included age, gender, major diagnosis, medical history, imaging examinations, conventional coagulation test data, thromboelastography with platelet mapping (TEG-PM), surgical procedures and discharge conditions. Results: In total 94 patients, 21 in the hemorrhage group (15 males, 6 females) and 73 in the non-hemorrhage group (52 males, 21 females) were included. The majority of hemorrhages were recorded in EVD patients (19/21; 90.5%). Platelet AA pathway inhibition rate of ≥75% (sensitivity: 79.45% specificity: 52.38%) (P = 0.014) and SBP ≥125 mmHg (P = 0.006) were significantly related to hemorrhage. When the platelet AA pathway inhibition rate was ≥75% and the during-procedure SBP was ≥125 mmHg, the hemorrhage rate was significantly higher (83.3%) than with SBP <125 mmHg (6.7%) (P < 0.001). When the inhibition rate was <75%, there were no significant differences in the hemorrhage rates between the during-procedure SBP ≥125 mmHg group (17.2%) and the SBP <125 mmHg group (13.2%) (P > 0.05). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that a platelet AA pathway inhibition rate ≥75% (OR = 5.183, 95% CI: 1.683-15.960) and during-procedure SBP ≥125 mmHg (OR = 4.609, 95% CI: 1.466-14.484) were independent risk factors for EVD/ICP-related hemorrhage. Conclusion: Patients with long-term aspirin therapy, a platelet AA pathway inhibition rate ≥75% and during-procedure SBP ≥125 mmHg had a significantly higher risk of hemorrhage, which could be reduced by adjusting the SBP to <125 mmHg.

Accuracy of routine external ventricular drain placement following a mixed reality-guided twist-drill craniostomy.

OBJECTIVE: The traditional freehand placement of an external ventricular drain (EVD) relies on empirical craniometric landmarks to guide the craniostomy and subsequent passage of the EVD catheter. The diameter and trajectory of the craniostomy physically limit the possible trajectories that can be achieved during the passage of the catheter. In this study, the authors implemented a mixed reality-guided craniostomy procedure to evaluate the benefit of an optimally drilled craniostomy to the accurate placement of the catheter. METHODS: Optical marker-based tracking using an OptiTrack system was used to register the brain ventricular hologram and drilling guidance for craniostomy using a HoloLens 2 mixed reality headset. A patient-specific 3D-printed skull phantom embedded with intracranial camera sensors was developed to automatically calculate the EVD accuracy for evaluation. User trials consisted of one blind and one mixed reality-assisted craniostomy followed by a routine, unguided EVD catheter placement for each of two different drill bit sizes. RESULTS: A total of 49 participants were included in the study (mean age 23.4 years, 59.2% female). The mean distance from the catheter target improved from 18.6 ± 12.5 mm to 12.7 ± 11.3 mm (p = 0.0008) using mixed reality guidance for trials with a large drill bit and from 19.3 ± 12.7 mm to 10.1 ± 8.4 mm with a small drill bit (p < 0.0001). Accuracy using mixed reality was improved using a smaller diameter drill bit compared with a larger bit (p = 0.039). Overall, the majority of the participants were positive about the helpfulness of mixed reality guidance and the overall mixed reality experience. CONCLUSIONS: Appropriate indications and use cases for the application of mixed reality guidance to neurosurgical procedures remain an area of active inquiry. While prior studies have demonstrated the benefit of mixed reality-guided catheter placement using predrilled craniostomies, the authors demonstrate that real-time quantitative and visual feedback of a mixed reality-guided craniostomy procedure can independently improve procedural accuracy and represents an important tool for trainee education and eventual clinical implementation.

Combination of Conventional EVD and Ommaya Drainage for Intraventricular Hemorrhage (IVH).

Background: The effect of Ommaya reservoirs on the clinical outcomes of patients with intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) remains unclear. Objective: We aimed to determine the effect of combining the Ommaya reservoir and external ventricular drainage (EVD) therapy on IVH and explore better clinical indicators for Ommaya implantation. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on patients diagnosed with IVH who received EVD-Ommaya drainage between January 2013 and March 2021. The patient population was divided into two groups: the Ommaya-used group, comprising patients in whom the Ommaya drainage system was activated post-surgery, and the Ommaya-unused group, comprising patients in whom the system was not activated. The study analyzed clinical, imaging, and outcome data of the patient population. Results: A total of 123 patients with IVH were included: 75 patients in the Ommaya-used group and 48 patients in the Ommaya-unused group. The patients in the Ommaya-used group showed a lower 3-month GOS than those in the Ommaya-unused group (p<0.0001). The modified Graeb scale (mGS) in the Ommaya-unused group was significantly lower than that in the Ommaya-used group before the operation (p<0.01) but not after surgery (p>0.05). The GCS in the Ommaya-unused group was significantly lower than that in the other group, and there was a close correlation between the GCS and 3-month GOS (p<0.0001). The GCS score showed significance in predicting the use of Ommaya (p<0.001). Conclusion: The study demonstrated that combining EVD and Ommaya drainage was a safe and feasible treatment for IVH. Additionally, preoperative GCS was found to predict the use of Ommaya drainage in subsequent treatment, providing valuable information for pre-surgery decision-making.

Indications for surgical evacuation of cerebellar intracerebral hemorrhage: consensus guidelines from the French Society of Neurosurgery (SFNC) and the French Society of Vascular Neurology (SFNV).

BACKGROUND: Cerebellar intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is associated with poor functional prognosis and high mortality. Surgical evacuation has been proposed to improve outcome. The purpose of this review was to determine the benefit of surgical evacuation of cerebellar ICH and to establish guidelines for when it should be performed. METHOD: The writing committee comprised 9 members of the SFNV and the SFNC. Recommendations were established based on a literature review using the PICO questions. The American Heart Association (AHA) classification was used to define recommendation level. In case of insufficient evidence, expert opinions were provided. RESULTS: Levels of evidence were low to moderate, precluding definitive recommendations. Based on available data, surgical hematoma evacuation is not recommended to improve functional outcome (Class III; Level B NR). However, based on subgroup analysis, surgical evacuation may be considered in strictly selected patients (Class IIb; Level C-EO): hematoma volume 15-25 cm3, GCS 6-10, and no oral anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy. Moreover, surgical evacuation is recommended to decrease risk of death (Class IIa; Level B NR) in patients with a hematoma volume >15 cm3 and GCS score <10. CONCLUSION: These guidelines were based on observational studies, limiting the level of evidence. However, except for strictly selected patients, surgical evacuation of cerebellar ICH was not associated with improved functional outcome, limiting indications. Data from RCTs are needed in this field.

[Local fibrinolisis in nontraumatic intraventricular hemorrhages]. / Lokal'nyi fibrinoliz pri netravmaticheskikh vnutrizheludochkovykh krovoizliyaniyakh.

The management of patients with hemorrhagic stroke is an important problem in modern neurology and neurosurgery. The proportion of hemorrhagic stroke is only 15% of all cases of acute cerebrovascular accident, but mortality reaches 50% (and with intraventricular hemorrhages up to 80%), and disability is over 75%. Minimally invasive methods are being developed to reduce intraoperative damage to brain and improve the prognosis for the patient. One of them is ventricular external drainage (EVD) in combination with local fibrinolysis (LF). Intraventricular injection of thrombolytics allows the acceleration of the process of lysis and evacuation of blood. In this clinical observation, a 52-year-old female patient was admitted to the clinic with intracerebral hematoma and intraventricular hemorrhage, complicated by acute occlusive hydrocephalus. In the case of this patient, the use of external ventricular drainage in combination with local fibrinolysis made it possible to quickly resolve occlusive hydrocephalus, reduce the risk of death and increase the patient's rehabilitation potential.

Prediction of Permanent Shunt Dependency in Patients with Intraventricular Hemorrhage: Outcomes of Early External Ventricular Drainage Weaning Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Hydrocephalus remains a common sequela of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) despite adequate drainage of the hematoma, including endoscopic surgery, intraventricular fibrinolysis, and external ventricular drainage (EVD). Moreover, the appropriate timing for conversion from EVD to ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) is uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the predictors of shunt dependency in patients with IVH based on the early EVD weaning protocol in our institution. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed medical records of patients who were diagnosed with primary IVH and secondary IVH from spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage during the period 2018-2021. Predictors associated with shunt dependency were identified using a logistic regression model. The cutoff point of each variable was selected by receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Furthermore, shunt complications were reported as a safety measure of our early EVD weaning protocol. RESULTS: The analysis included 106 patients. After IVH treatment, 15 (14%) patients required ventriculoperitoneal shunt, whereas 91 (86%) patients were shunt-free. The diameter of posttreatment temporal horn and the degree of IVH reduction were the significant predictors of shunt dependency. Moreover, patients with IVH reduction of >45% and temporal horn diameter of <9 mm had a lower probability of shunt dependency. Shunt failure was found in 2 (13.3%) patients. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that a large temporal horn diameter and a lower degree of IVH removal were predictors of shunt dependency in patients with IVH. In addition, early conversion from EVD to ventriculoperitoneal shunt is safe and feasible.

Construction and validation of infection risk model for patients with external ventricular drainage: a multicenter retrospective study.

PURPOSE: External ventricular drainage (EVD) is a life-saving neurosurgical procedure, of which the most concerning complication is EVD-related infection (ERI). We aimed to construct and validate an ERI risk model and establish a monographic chart. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the adult EVD patients in four medical centers and split the data into a training and a validation set. We selected features via single-factor logistic regression and trained the ERI risk model using multi-factor logistic regression. We further evaluated the model discrimination, calibration, and clinical usefulness, with internal and external validation to assess the reproducibility and generalizability. We finally visualized the model as a nomogram and created an online calculator (dynamic nomogram). RESULTS: Our research enrolled 439 EVD patients and found 75 cases (17.1%) had ERI. Diabetes, drainage duration, site leakage, and other infections were independent risk factors that we used to fit the ERI risk model. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and the Brier score of the model were 0.758 and 0.118, and these indicators' values were similar when internally validated. In external validation, the model discrimination had a moderate decline, of which the AUC was 0.720. However, the Brier score was 0.114, suggesting no degradation in overall performance. Spiegelhalter's Z-test indicated that the model had adequate calibration when validated internally or externally (P = 0.464 vs. P = 0.612). The model was transformed into a nomogram with an online calculator built, which is available through the website: https://wang-cdutcm.shinyapps.io/DynNomapp/ . CONCLUSIONS: The present study developed an infection risk model for EVD patients, which is freely accessible and may serve as a simple decision tool in the clinic.

Hemorrhagic complications after removal of an external ventricular drain: A case report and literature review.

Background: External ventricular drainage (EVD) is one of the most common neurosurgical procedures. Complications are rather rare and mostly include hemorrhage and infection. Hematomas may form during placement or even after the removal of an EVD. Regarding the latter, the literature is scarce, with only nine clinically significant cases reported. Case Description: We present the case of a young woman who suffered an extensive hemorrhage after removal of an EVD, in the setting of a posterior fossa stroke. We discuss the management and possible consequences of such an event and we emphasize the need for alertness to avoid such complications. Conclusion: Removal of an EVD is a safe procedure, with rare cases of hemorrhagic complications being reported. A case of a large hematoma that formed after the removal of an EVD is presented. Stricter follow-up protocols should be implemented to better estimate the risk of hemorrhage.

Low- and Negative-Pressure Hydrocephalus: New Report of Six Cases and Literature Review.

Low- or very-low-pressure hydrocephalus is a serious and rare phenomenon, which is becoming better known since it was first described in 1994 by Pang and Altschuler. Forced drainage at negative pressures can, in most cases, restore the ventricles to their original size, thus achieving neurological recovery. We present six new cases that suffered this syndrome from 2015 to 2020: two of them after medulloblastoma surgery; a third one as a consequence of a severe head trauma that required bifrontal craniectomy; another one after craniopharyngioma surgery; a fifth one with leptomeningeal glioneuronal tumor; and, finally, a patient with a shunt for normotensive hydrocephalus. Before the development of this condition, four of them had mid-low-pressure cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunts. Four patients required cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage at negative pressures oscillating from zero to -15 mmHg by external ventricular drainage until ventricular size normalized, followed by the placement of a new definitive low-pressure shunt, one of them to the right atrium. The duration of drainage in negative pressures through external ventricular drainage (EVD) ranged from 10 to 40 days with concomitant intracranial pressure monitoring at the neurointensive care unit. Approximately 200 cases of this syndrome have been described in the literature. The causes are varied and superimposable to those of high-pressure hydrocephalus. Neurological impairment is due to ventricular size and not to pressure values. Subzero drainage is still the most commonly used method, but other treatments have been described, such as neck wrapping, ventriculostomy of the third ventricle, and lumbar blood patches when associated with lumbar puncture. Its pathophysiology is not clear, although it seems to involve changes in the permeability and viscoelasticity of the brain parenchyma together with an imbalance in CSF circulation in the craniospinal subarachnoid space.

How I do it: brainwashing for purulent ventriculitis.

BACKGROUND: The management of ventriculitis remains controversial, with no single management strategy that can provide a good outcome. There are few articles describing the brainwashing technique, and most for neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage. This technical note is important because it describes a practical way to perform brainwashing in case of ventriculitis, and it is more feasible compared to endoscopic lavage in developing countries. METHOD: We describe in a stepwise fashion the surgical technique of ventricular lavage. CONCLUSION: Ventricular lavage is a neglected technique that can help to improve ventricular infection and hemorrhage prognosis.

Does preventive external ventricular drainage benefit patients with mild ventricular hemorrhage?

External ventricular drainage (EVD) is the routine intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) treatment. Neurological deterioration and symptomatic hydrocephalus are often the default indications for EVD insertion. However, the outcome of preventive EVD is unclear in patients with mild IVH. This study aimed to determine whether EVD is beneficial in patients with mild IVH. This study aimed to determine whether EVD is beneficial in patients with mild IVH. Data from IVH patients treated conservatively or with EVD at two hospitals from January 2017 to December 2022 were analyzed retrospectively. Patients with a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 12-14 and a modified Graeb score (mGS) ≥ 5 at admission were included. The primary outcome was poor functional status, defined as a modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score of 3-6 at 90 days. Secondary outcomes included the distribution of mRS score categories, the resolution time of intraventricular blood clots, and complications. Forty-nine patients were enrolled in the study: 21 patients in the EVD group, 28 in the non-EVD group, and 13 in the EVD group who received urokinase injections. ICH volume was an independent predictor of poor functional status. Currently, no evidence supports that preventive EVD benefits patients with mild IVH.

Safety and Efficacy of Stereotaxic Surgery Combined with Urokinase in the Treatment of Ventricular Hemorrhage: A Retrospective Propensity-Matched Score Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) is a severe and devastating stroke. Research on existing treatment options has been controversial. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of minimally implanted stereotactic puncture combined with urokinase (uPA) in the treatment of IVH. METHODS: The clinical data of 122 IVH patients admitted to our department from 2018 to 2022 were retrospectively analyzed. According to the modified RanKin score (mRS) after 30 days, the patients were divided into good prognosis (mRS 0-3) and poor prognosis (mRS 4-6), and the factors affecting the prognosis were screened by univariate and multivariate analysis, and then the tendency Score matching and paired patient screening were performed for comparative analysis between uPA and non-uPA groups. RESULTS: Patients' age, uPA usage, initial Glasgow Coma Scale and primary blood volume all could affect the mRS score of patients. One hundred patients were finally included, including 50 cases in the uPA group and 50 cases in the non-uPA group. The analysis showed that at follow-up after 30 days, 46.0% of the patients in the uPA group and 28.0% in the non-uPA group had an mRS score of 0-3; however, they were not statistically significantly different. The postoperative hematoma clearance rate in the uPA group was significantly higher than that in the non-uPA group (P < 0.001), and the incidence of postoperative complications was not increased (P > 0.05). CONCIUSIONS: uPA treatment can improve the treatment efficiency. However, its effect in improving patient outcomes does not appear to be significant.

External Ventricular Drainage: A Practical Guide for Neuro-Anesthesiologists.

External ventricular drainage is often considered a life-saving treatment in acute hydrocephalus. Given the large number of discussion points, the ideal management of EVD has not been completely clarified. The objective of this study was to review the most relevant scientific evidence about the management of EVD in its main clinical scenarios. We reviewed the most recent and relevant articles about indications, timing, management, and complications of EVD in neurocritical care, with particular interest in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), and intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) using the following keywords alone or matching with one another: intracranial pressure, subarachnoid hemorrhage, traumatic brain injury, intraventricular hemorrhage, external ventricular drainage, cerebrospinal shunt, intracranial pressure monitoring, and ventriculoperitoneal shunt. In the management of EVD in SAH, the intermittent drainage strategy is burdened with an elevated risk of complications (e.g., clogged catheter, hemorrhage, and need for replacement). There seems to be more ventriculoperitoneal shunt dependency in rapid weaning approach-managed patients than in those treated with the gradual weaning approach. Although there is no evidence in favor of either strategy, it is conventionally accepted to adopt a continuous drainage approach in TBI patients. Less scientific evidence is available in the literature regarding the management of EVD in patients with severe TBI and intraparenchymal/intraventricular hemorrhage. EVD placement is a necessary treatment in several clinical scenarios. However, further randomized clinical trials are needed to clarify precisely how EVD should be managed in different clinical scenarios.

Treatment of Intraventricular Hemorrhage with External Ventricular Drainage and Fibrinolysis: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Complications and Outcome.

BACKGROUND: External ventricular drainage (EVD) is a key factor in the treatment of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) but associated with risks and complications. Intraventricular fibrinolysis (IVF) has been proposed to improve clinical outcome and reduce complications of EVD treatment. The following review and metaanalysis provides a comprehensive evaluation of IVH treatment with external ventricular drainage (EVD) and intraventricular fibrinolysis (IVF) with regards to complications and clinical outcomes. METHODS: The PRISMA guidelines were followed preparing this review. Studies included in the meta-analysis were compared using forest plots and the related odds ratios. RESULTS: After a literature search, 980 articles were identified and 65 and underwent full-text review. Forty-two articles were included in the review and meta-analysis. We found that bolted and antibiotic-coated catheters were superior to tunnelled/uncoated catheters (P < 0.001) and antibiotic- vs. silver-impregnated catheters (P < 0.001]) in preventing infection. Shunt dependency was related to the volume of blood in the ventricles but unaffected by IVF (P = 0.98). IVF promoted hematoma clearance, decreased mortality (22.4% vs. 40.9% with IVF vs. no IVF, respectively, P < 0.00001), improved good functional outcomes (47.2% [IVF] vs. 38.3% [no IVF], P = 0.03), and reduced the rate of catheter occlusion from 37.3% without IVF to 10.6% with IVF (P = 0.0003). CONCLUSIONS: We present evidence and best practice recommendations for the treatment of IVH with EVD and intraventricular fibrinolysis. Our analysis further provides a comprehensive quantitative reference of the most relevant clinical endpoints for future studies on novel IVH technologies and treatments.

Perioperative external ventricular drainage vs. no-EVD strategy in pediatric posterior fossa tumors-pilot study results.

INTRODUCTION: Pediatric brain tumors of the posterior fossa often present with occlusive hydrocephalus. Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) or ventriculoperitoneal shunting (VPS) has been established for definite hydrocephalus treatment. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact and safety of perioperative temporary external ventricular CSF drainage (EVD) placement on postoperative hydrocephalus outcome compared to a no-EVD strategy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In a prospective database, 36 posterior fossa tumor patients of 2-18 years were included with a follow-up of 1 year. Fifty-eight percent presented with preoperative hydrocephalus. Patients were assigned to non-hydrocephalus group: group I (n = 15) and to preoperative hydrocephalus, group IIa with EVD placement (n = 9), and group IIb without EVD (n = 12). RESULTS: Median age of patients was 8.1 years (range 3.17 to 16.58 years). One-third of 21 hydrocephalus patients required ETV or VPS (n = 7). Occurrence of de novo hydrocephalus in group I after surgery was not observed in our cohort. Age and histology were no confounding factor for EVD placement between group IIa and IIb (p = 0.34). The use of EVD did not result in better control of hydrocephalus compared to no-EVD patients considering pre- and postoperative MRI ventricular indices (p = 0.4). Perioperative placement of an EVD resulted in a threefold risk for subsequent VPS or ETV (group IIa 55.5% vs group IIb 16.6%): relative risk for EVD patients compared to no-EVD patients with hydrocephalus was 3.3 (CI = 1.06-13.43, p = 0.09). CONCLUSION: Perioperative EVD placement appears to harbor a threefold relative risk of requiring subsequent permanent CSF diversion in children above 2 years. EVD was not more effective to control ventricular enlargement compared to tumor removal alone. The no-EVD strategy was safe and did not result in postoperative complications. Thus, to evaluate potential adverse effects on hydrocephalus outcome by EVD placement, a prospective study is warranted to falsify the results.

Acute hydrocephalus following post-traumatic peri-mesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage: an uncommon and potentially fatal event in children.

PURPOSE: In pediatric, head trauma acute hydrocephalus is an uncommon but possible complication. Association with a subarachnoid hemorrhage is poorly described. METHODS: We described a case of an 8-year-old girl with acute hydrocephalus secondary to peri-mesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage after mild head trauma resolved with external ventricular drainage. Furthermore, we have conducted a review of the literature about this complication in pediatric head trauma. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Acute hydrocephalus related to post-traumatic peri-mesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage (tSAH) is an unknown entity in pediatric head trauma. According to our experience, traumatic peri-mesencephalic SAH should be under close clinical monitoring to identify post-traumatic hydrocephalus (PTH), a potentially fatal complication in pediatric mild head trauma.

Impact of an external ventricular shunt (EVD) handling protocol on secondary meningitis rates: a historical cohort study with propensity score matching.

BACKGROUND: External ventricular drainage (EVD) is frequently used in neurosurgical procedures for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage. It is, however, associated with high infection rates, namely secondary meningitis and ventriculitis. Based on a previous high prevalence of these infections among patients with EVDs, we have proposed and implemented a protocol in an effort to decrease the infection rate. The aim of this study was to measure the effect of hospital-wide implementation of the EVD handling protocol on secondary EVD infections. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We included 409 consecutive patients who received a new EVD for other indications than infectious pathologies from January 2000 until June 2012. Patients above 18 years of age were divided into pre- (n = 228) and post-protocol (n = 181) groups. Patient and disease demographics, as well as EVD data together with confounders for secondary meningitis were recorded in a database. Propensity score matching was then performed to create groups matched for sex, age, reason for drainage, type of shunt, time in situ and duration of surgery to place the EVD. Binomial logistic regression for confounder adjustment and regression discontinuity analyses were then performed on the matched cohort. RESULTS: Infections occurred more frequently in the pre-protocol group (23% vs 9%, p <  0.001). The incidence of infection was 33/1000 drain-days pre-protocol and 9/1000 drain-days post-protocol. Regression analysis in a propensity score-matched cohort (n = 103 in the pre- and n = 178 in the post-protocol groups) showed that the pre-protocol period was independently associated with more infections (OR 2.69; 95%-CI 1.22-5.95, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of secondary EVD infections can be reduced significantly by the implementation of a strict hospital-wide EVD handling protocol.

Outcomes of Combined Endoscopic Surgery and Fibrinolytic Treatment Protocol for Intraventricular Hemorrhage: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Intraventricular fibrinolysis (IVF) and endoscopic surgery (ES) are the new promising treatment strategies to enhance the rate of hematoma clearance, which might improve functional outcome. This study investigated and compared the outcomes among these interventions. METHODS: A randomized (1:1) double-blinded trial was carried out between August 2018 and December 2021. The intervention and control groups comprised patients receiving IVF and/or ES and external ventricular drainage (EVD), respectively. All participants had experienced primary or secondary intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) from spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage with obstructive hydrocephalus complications. The primary outcome was modified Rankin Scale score 180 days post treatment. Interim assessments were planned for every 50 participants enrolled to ensure safety and efficacy. RESULTS: After enrollment of 110 participants (55 participants in each group), there was a difference in 30-day mortality (2 [3.6%] vs. 13 [32.7%] in the EVD group, P = 0.002), reaching the predetermined boundaries for termination of the trial. We demonstrated a better favorable outcome (modified Rankin Scale score 0-3) at 180 days in the intervention group, compared with the control group (35 [63.6%] vs. 24 [43.6%], P = 0.04). Participants in the intervention group experienced a higher IVH removal rate (91% [9.0] vs. 69.5% [38.0], P < 0.01) and had lower shunt conversion (1 [1.8%] vs. 16 [29.3%], P < 0.01). Treatment complications were comparable between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated that combined ES and IVF is safe and effective for the treatment of IVH. In addition, it concluded that aggressive but safe procedures used to remove IVH could improve clinical outcome in patients with IVH.