A common cis-regulatory variant impacts normal-range and disease-associated human facial shape through regulation of PKDCC during chondrogenesis.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) identified thousands of genetic variants linked to phenotypic traits and disease risk. However, mechanistic understanding of how GWAS variants influence complex morphological traits and can, in certain cases, simultaneously confer normal-range phenotypic variation and disease predisposition, is still largely lacking. Here, we focus on rs6740960, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at the 2p21 locus, which in GWAS studies has been associated both with normal-range variation in jaw shape and with an increased risk of non-syndromic orofacial clefting. Using in vitro derived embryonic cell types relevant for human facial morphogenesis, we show that this SNP resides in an enhancer that regulates chondrocytic expression of PKDCC - a gene encoding a tyrosine kinase involved in chondrogenesis and skeletal development. In agreement, we demonstrate that the rs6740960 SNP is sufficient to confer chondrocyte-specific differences in PKDCC expression. By deploying dense landmark morphometric analysis of skull elements in mice, we show that changes in Pkdcc dosage are associated with quantitative changes in the maxilla, mandible, and palatine bone shape that are concordant with the facial phenotypes and disease predisposition seen in humans. We further demonstrate that the frequency of the rs6740960 variant strongly deviated among different human populations, and that the activity of its cognate enhancer diverged in hominids. Our study provides a mechanistic explanation of how a common SNP can mediate normal-range and disease-associated morphological variation, with implications for the evolution of human facial features.

Face shape and motion are perceptually separable: Support for a revised model of face processing.

A recent model of face processing proposes that face shape and motion are processed in parallel brain pathways. Although tested in neuroimaging, the assumptions of this theory remain relatively untested through controlled psychophysical studies until now. Recruiting undergraduate students over the age of 18, we test this hypothesis using a tight control of stimulus factors, through computerized three-dimensional face models and calibration of dimensional discriminability, and of decisional factors, through a model-based analysis using general recognition theory (GRT). Theoretical links between neural and perceptual forms of independence within GRT allowed us to derive the a priori hypotheses that perceptual separability of shape and motion should hold, while other forms of independence defined within GRT might fail. We found evidence to support both of those predictions.

Facial shaping filled with autologous high density fat in zygomatic arch area / 中华医学美学美容杂志

Objective:To explore a simple and effective method to improve the facial shape coordination for patients.Methods:From May 2015 to May 2020, 36 female patients (aged 24-32 years, mean 26.8 years) who were required to change face shape were enrolled in Zhengzhou Mylike Medical Cosmetology Hospital to improve face shape by adjusting frontaI arch width combined with autologous high-density fat transplantation.Results:Thirty-three patients (91.7%) were satisfied (31 satisfied, 2 basically satisfied). Three patients were not satisfied with the filling effect, and two of them were satisfied after the second filling (3 months after operation). 35 of the 36 patients were satisfied, accounting for 97.2%, only 1 case was dissatisfied. No other compIications such as fat liquefaction were observed. The mean morphological surface index of patients was 90.2 before operation and 88.1 after operation, showing significant improvement.Conclusions:Autologous high density fat transplantation is a good method to adjust the coordination of the frontal arch.

Brain PET motion correction using 3D face-shape model: the first clinical study.

OBJECTIVE: Head motions during brain PET scan cause degradation of brain images, but head fixation or external-maker attachment become burdensome on patients. Therefore, we have developed a motion correction method that uses a 3D face-shape model generated by a range-sensing camera (Kinect) and by CT images. We have successfully corrected the PET images of a moving mannequin-head phantom containing radioactivity. Here, we conducted a volunteer study to verify the effectiveness of our method for clinical data. METHODS: Eight healthy men volunteers aged 22-45 years underwent a 10-min head-fixed PET scan as a standard of truth in this study, which was started 45 min after 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (285 ± 23 MBq) injection, and followed by a 15-min head-moving PET scan with the developed Kinect based motion-tracking system. First, selecting a motion-less period of the head-moving PET scan provided a reference PET image. Second, CT images separately obtained on the same day were registered to the reference PET image, and create a 3D face-shape model, then, to which Kinect-based 3D face-shape model matched. This matching parameter was used for spatial calibration between the Kinect and the PET system. This calibration parameter and the motion-tracking of the 3D face shape by Kinect comprised our motion correction method. The head-moving PET with motion correction was compared with the head-fixed PET images visually and by standard uptake value ratios (SUVRs) in the seven volume-of-interest regions. To confirm the spatial calibration accuracy, a test-retest experiment was performed by repeating the head-moving PET with motion correction twice where the volunteer's pose and the sensor's position were different. RESULTS: No difference was identified visually and statistically in SUVRs between the head-moving PET images with motion correction and the head-fixed PET images. One of the small nuclei, the inferior colliculus, was identified in the head-fixed PET images and in the head-moving PET images with motion correction, but not in those without motion correction. In the test-retest experiment, the SUVRs were well correlated (determinant coefficient, r2 = 0.995). CONCLUSION: Our motion correction method provided good accuracy for the volunteer data which suggested it is useable in clinical settings.

What's Shape Got to Do With It? Examining the Relationship Between Facial Shape and Orofacial Clefting.

Nonsyndromic orofacial clefts belong to a class of congenital malformations characterized by a complex and multifactorial etiology. During early facial development, multiple factors can disrupt fusion leading to a cleft; this includes the shape of the embryonic face. The face shape hypothesis (FSH) of orofacial clefting emerged in the 1960s, influenced by morphological differences observed within affected families, comparative studies of mouse models, and advances in modeling genetic liability for complex traits in populations. For the past five decades, studies have documented changes in the shape or spatial arrangement of facial prominences in embryonic mice and altered post-natal facial shape in individuals at elevated risk for orofacial clefting due to their family history. Moreover, recent studies showing how genes that impact facial shape in humans and mice are providing clues about the genetic basis of orofacial clefting. In this review, I discuss the origins of the FSH, provide an overview of the supporting evidence, and discuss ways in which the FSH can inform our understanding of orofacial clefting.

Genome-wide analysis of copy number variants and normal facial variation in a large cohort of Bantu Africans.

Similarity in facial characteristics between relatives suggests a strong genetic component underlies facial variation. While there have been numerous studies of the genetics of facial abnormalities and, more recently, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of normal facial variation, little is known about the role of genetic structural variation in determining facial shape. In a sample of Bantu African children, we found that only 9% of common copy number variants (CNVs) and 10-kb CNV analysis windows are well tagged by SNPs (r2 ≥ 0.8), indicating that associations with our internally called CNVs were not captured by previous SNP-based GWASs. Here, we present a GWAS and gene set analysis of the relationship between normal facial variation and CNVs in a sample of Bantu African children. We report the top five regions, which had p values ≤ 9.35 × 10-6 and find nominal evidence of independent CNV association (p < 0.05) in three regions previously identified in SNP-based GWASs. The CNV region with strongest association (p = 1.16 × 10-6, 55 losses and seven gains) contains NFATC1, which has been linked to facial morphogenesis and Cherubism, a syndrome involving abnormal lower facial development. Genomic loss in the region is associated with smaller average lower facial depth. Importantly, new loci identified here were not identified in a SNP-based GWAS, suggesting that CNVs are likely involved in determining facial shape variation. Given the plethora of SNP-based GWASs, calling CNVs from existing data may be a relatively inexpensive way to aid in the study of complex traits.

Thirty years of geometric morphometrics: Achievements, challenges, and the ongoing quest for biological meaningfulness.

The foundations of geometric morphometrics were worked out about 30 years ago and have continually been refined and extended. What has remained as a central thrust and source of debate in the morphometrics community is the shared goal of meaningful biological inference through a tight connection between biological theory, measurement, multivariate biostatistics, and geometry. Here we review the building blocks of modern geometric morphometrics: the representation of organismal geometry by landmarks and semilandmarks, the computation of shape or form variables via superimposition, the visualization of statistical results as actual shapes or forms, the decomposition of shape variation into symmetric and asymmetric components and into different spatial scales, the interpretation of various geometries in shape or form space, and models of the association between shape or form and other variables, such as environmental, genetic, or behavioral data. We focus on recent developments and current methodological challenges, especially those arising from the increasing number of landmarks and semilandmarks, and emphasize the importance of thorough exploratory multivariate analyses rather than single scalar summary statistics. We outline promising directions for further research and for the evaluation of new developments, such as "landmark-free" approaches. To illustrate these methods, we analyze three-dimensional human face shape based on data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC).

Impairment effect of infantile coloration on face discrimination in chimpanzees.

Impaired face recognition for certain face categories, such as faces of other species or other age class faces, is known in both humans and non-human primates. A previous study found that it is more difficult for chimpanzees to differentiate infant faces than adult faces. Infant faces of chimpanzees differ from adult faces in shape and colour, but the latter is especially a salient cue for chimpanzees. Therefore, impaired face differentiation of infant faces may be due to a specific colour. In the present study, we investigated which feature of infant faces has a greater effect on face identification difficulty. Adult chimpanzees were tested using a matching-to-sample task with four types of face stimuli whose shape and colour were manipulated as either infant or adult one independently. Chimpanzees' discrimination performance decreased as they matched faces with infant coloration, regardless of the shape. This study is the first to demonstrate the impairment effect of infantile coloration on face recognition in non-human primates, suggesting that the face recognition strategies of humans and chimpanzees overlap as both species show proficient face recognition for certain face colours.

A New Simplified Visual Assessment Tool Describing Facial Morphotypes Observed and Desired in Asian Populations.

OBJECTIVE: A group of established aesthetic physicians sought to develop treatment guidelines for assessing Asian face morphologies that reflect accurate and current beauty standards across Asia. DESIGN: Physicians completed surveys, debated, and voted on their clinical strategies and developed an alternative simplified visual tool of assessment (SVAT) that discerns between country variations in genetic and ideal morphotypes. SETTING: Electronic and paper surveys were followed by consensus debates and voting. PARTICIPANTS: Established aesthetic physicians practicing regularly on Asian patients. MEAUSUREMENTS: A clinically applicable SVAT was developed, which considered facial index, mid-face projection, upper and lower face shape, submalar contour, nose length and dorsal height, eye shape and brow shape, proportion of lips-to-lower face and ratio of upper-to-lower lip, and chin shape. RESULTS: For facial shape change, physicians always assessed the horizontal thirds, facial symmetry, and lip-chin complex profile, and also analyzed overall face shapes and Ogee curves. Criteria for creating oval-shaped faces was also defined and included treating indications, such as loss of angularity and bilateral masseter muscle hypertrophy, narrow jawlines, and longer and wider foreheads. Critical differences and similarities in country-specific aesthetic preferences, treatment requests, and considerations or strategies were uncovered, including the inadequacy of assessing overall peripheral facial shapes. CONCLUSION: This consensus establishes the assessment and treatment criteria for achieving ideal shapes for Asian patients. Specific descriptors are affected by variations; therefore, we present the visual criteria for Asian facial morphotypes. We hope that physicians new to treating Asian patients can use this clinical information to improve their practice.

A novel facial attractiveness evaluation system based on face shape, facial structure features and skin.

Facial attractiveness is an important research direction of genetic psychology and cognitive psychology, and its results are significant for the study of face evolution and human evolution. However, previous studies have not put forward a comprehensive evaluation system of facial attractiveness. Traditionally, the establishment of facial attractiveness evaluation system was based on facial geometric features, without facial skin features. In this paper, combined with big data analysis, evaluation of face in real society and literature research, we found that skin also have a significant impact on facial attractiveness, because skin could reflect age, wrinkles and healthful qualities, thus affected the human perception of facial attractiveness. Therefore, we propose a comprehensive and novel facial attractiveness evaluation system based on face shape structural features, facial structure features and skin texture feature. In order to apply face shape structural features to the evaluation of facial attractiveness, the classification of face shape is the first step. Face image dataset is divided according to face shape, and then facial structure features and skin texture features that represent facial attractiveness are extracted and fused. The machine learning algorithm with the best prediction performance is selected in the face shape structural subsets to predict facial attractiveness. Experimental results show that the facial attractiveness evaluation performance can be improved by the method based on classification of face shape and multi-features fusion, the facial attractiveness scores obtained by the proposed system correlates better with human ratings. Our evaluation system can help people project their cognition of facial attractiveness into artificial agents they interact with.

Three-dimensional shape variation and sexual dimorphism of the face, nose, and mouth of Japanese individuals.

Three-dimensional (3D) shape variations of the face and facial parts in Japanese adults were examined to collect basic data to be used for facial comparison in forensics. In total, 1000 3D facial scans (500 males, 500 females) of Japanese individuals were re-meshed into anatomically homologous shape models and analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA) after Procrustes superimposition. Facial parts (the nose and the mouth) were segmented from homologous face models and analyzed by PCA, too. Among all kinds of objects (the face, the nose, and the mouth), the most predominant shape variation represented by the first principal component (PC1) was the height-width proportion. The second largest variation (PC2) in the face and the nose was depth; for the mouth, it was the relative protrusion of the upper and lower lips. We interpreted predominant shape variations represented by the first five principal components (PCs) in each object. Asymmetric shape variations were observed within these PCs for the nose and the mouth. Sexual dimorphism of the face and the facial parts was also examined by testing the significance of sex-linked differences in PC scores. A significant difference was found between males and females for many PCs. Sexual dimorphism was examined also by emphasizing the shape difference between average male and female faces. Our results revealed predominant 3D shape variations and sexual dimorphism of the face and facial parts. The results may be informative for performing facial comparison in police investigations, an increasingly used technique.

Data-Driven Research on the Matching Degree of Eyes, Eyebrows and Face Shapes.

There is a close relationship between the attractiveness of the face and the facial features. The shape of the facial features determines the level of attractiveness, in which the eyes and eyebrows are particularly vital. In this article, we proposed a method to study the facial attractiveness by combining global face shape and local geometric features of eye and eyebrow and using computer big data analysis for assistance. Firstly, we collected 300 images of East Asian female and use machine learning methods to evaluate the attractiveness scores of face images. Secondly, geometric models were constructed separately for the eyebrows and the eyes to obtain their geometric and shape features. Correlation analysis was performed on the obtained data to study their shape matching of different facial attractiveness rating levels. Finally, the relationship between the shape of face and eyebrows was analyzed by combining the facial ratio and the geometric features of the eyebrows. The research in this article can provide reference for medical and beauty institutions and women's makeup, and further study in the field of facial aesthetic analysis based on geometric features.

Hunting for genes that shape human faces: Initial successes and challenges for the future.

There is ample evidence from heritability studies, genetic syndromes and experimental animal models that facial morphology is strongly influenced by genes. In this brief review, we present an up-to-date overview of the efforts to identify genes associated with the size and shape of human facial features. We discuss recent methodological advances that have led to breakthroughs, but also the multitude of challenges facing the field. We offer perspective on possible applications of this line of research, particularly in the context of the precision genomics movement.

Evaluating the Association of Tooth Form of Maxillary Central Incisors with Face Shape Using AutoCAD Software: A Descriptive Study.

PURPOSE: To assess the different forms of maxillary central incisors (MCI) and determine their association with the shape of the face for men and women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 200 subjects (100 women, 100 men) aged between 18 and 30 years with healthy dentition were randomly selected from K.L.E. V.K Institute of Dental Sciences, Belagavi, India. Two standardized photographs (portrait and shape of the MCI) were taken for each subject and opened in AutoCAD 2009 software that was used to prepare technical drawings of face and tooth forms. The dental ratios (extent of line TA: extent of line TB) obtained after the tracings, were classified as tapered (≤0.61), ovoid (>0.61 and <0.69), or square (≥0.70). This classification was used to relate tooth form to the shape of the face and compare the form of MCI between men and women. Association between the shape of the MCI and the face was determined by Chi-square test using R 3.3.1 software. RESULTS: The most prevalent tooth form among the subjects was ovoid (women, 32%; men, 31%) followed by tapered (women, 13%; men, 16%). The least prevalent shape was square (women, 5%; men, 3%). The most prevalent face shape was tapered (women, 34%; men, 25%) followed by ovoid (women, 15%; men, 22%) and the least prevalent was square (women, 1%; men, 3%). An association between face shape and tooth form was statistically not significant. CONCLUSION: The most prevalent tooth form in both men and women was ovoid, and the least prevalent was square. The association between face shape and tooth form was not significant and did not abide by William's "Law of Harmony." However, there was an association between face shape and gender.

Clinical evaluation of the effectiveness of the developed method of conductive anesthesia of the facial branches of great auricular nerve

Introduction: The most common method of local anesthesia of maxillofacial region in the modern surgical practice is conductive anesthesia of the peripheral branches of trigeminal nerve. In order to reach the total anesthesia of the lateral facial region it is necessary to block not only auriculo-temporal and buccal nerves, but also facial branches of great auricular nerve taking part in the innervation of parotid-masticatory area and the part of the cheek. Topographic-anatomical investigations of corpses revealed the anatomical variability of the branching of great auricular nerve on the neck and the head. Taking into account the topographic-anatomical aspects of variability of innervation of the lateral facial region, we developed the method of conductive anesthesia of the facial branches of great auricular nerve. The aim: To evaluate the clinical effectiveness of the developed method of conductive anesthesia of the facial branches of great auricular nerve taking into account individual anatomical peculiarities of its branching in patients with the different forms of the skull. Material and methods: Clinical observations were conducted on 69 patients of different age (from 18 to 70) and sex (43 males and 26 females). Under the local anesthesia we conducted surgery in the parotid-masticatory region including: disclosure of the abscesses, excision of migrating granulomas or lymph nodes (in the cases of chronic hyperplastic lymphadenitis); excision of the benign tumors of the soft tissues (atheromas, lipomas, fibromas and keratoacanthomas), excision of the salivary fistulas and keloid scars. Depending on the used methods of local anesthesia of the soft tissues of the parotid-masticatory region the patients were divided into two clinical groups. The first group (30 patients) was exposed to conductive anesthesia of great auricular nerve by the method of P. Raj (2002). according to which the blockade of the nerve is conducted ahead the apex of mastoid process of the temporal bone. 39 patients after the signing of the written agreement were exposed to the developed method of conductive anesthesia of the facial branches of great auricular nerve. In order to detect the individual anatomical features of the facial part of the head in patients, the facial index was determined by the Garson`s formula. Pain sensitivity and perception in patients were studied using subjective and objective methods. The data were analysed by means of the Pearson's chi­square tests. Results: It is revealed that total anesthesia of the soft tissues of the parotid-masticatory region in all cases was reached in patients with euriprosopic face shape (broad-faced) ­ in 8 patients of the first clinical group and 10 patients of the second. The least effective was the anesthesia of the anterior branch of great auricular nerve conducted according to P. Raj's method (2002) in patients with leptoprosopic face shape. In patients with leptoprosopic face shape of the second clinical group after administering anesthesia according to the developed method in 9 cases total anesthesia was reached, in 2 cases pain sensitivity in the inferior-anterior quadrant remained (χ2 = 5,70; р < 0,05). Generally, in patients of the first clinical group the method of conducted anesthesia by P. Raj was effective in 19 cases (63,3 %), and the developed method of conductive anesthesia of the facial branches of great auricular nerve ­ in 36 cases (92,3 %) ­ χ2 = 8,85, р < 0,01. Conclusions: The results of the research confirm that the developed method of conductive anesthesia of the facial branches of great auricular nerve is more effective in comparison to methods of anesthesia commonly used in today dentistry surgical practice. It allows to reach the total anesthesia of the soft tissues of the parotid-masticatory region in 92,3 % patients with different face shapes.

The Relative Contribution of Jawbone and Cheekbone Prominence, Eyebrow Thickness, Eye Size, and Face Length to Evaluations of Facial Masculinity and Attractiveness: A Conjoint Data-Driven Approach.

Recent work demonstrates the methodological rigor of a type of data-driven analysis (i.e., conjoint analysis; CA), which accounts for the relative contribution of different facial morphological cues to interpersonal perceptions of romantic partner quality. This study extends this literature by using a conjoint face ranking task to predict the relative contribution of five sexually dimorphic facial shape features (jawbone and cheekbone prominence, eyebrow thickness, eye size, face length) to participants' (N = 922) perceptions of facial attractiveness and sex-typicality (i.e., masculinity/femininity). For overall partner attractiveness, eyebrow thickness and jawbone prominence were relatively more salient than cheekbone prominence and eye size. Interestingly, masculinized (i.e., thicker) eyebrows were marginally more attractive for female than male faces, particularly within a long-term mating context. Masculinized jawbone prominence was more attractive for male than female faces, and feminized jawbone prominence was more attractive for female than male faces. For perceptions of masculinity, eyebrow thickness, jawbone prominence, and facial height were relatively more salient than cheekbone prominence and eye size, although facial height was more important for female than male faces, and jawbone prominence was marginally more important for male than female faces. These findings highlight the prominence of eyebrows, the jawline, and facial height during perception of facial attractiveness and masculinity - though it should be noted that many of these differences were small to moderate in effect size. Findings are interpreted in the context of prior research, and future directions for studying why these facial traits exhibit superior signaling capacity are discussed.

Geometric morphometrics and face shape characteristics associated with chronic disease in the elderly / Morfometria geométrica e características da forma da face associados à doença crônica em idosos

The aging process is something that occurs naturally during the lifetime of the human being. It causes biological, psychological and social changes in the body. Anthropometry, which until the late nineteenth century was a common tool in clinical and taxonomic practices, has gained great importance as a public health measure. This methodology is also important in the evaluation of morbidities in individuals and their social practices. Thus, the objective of the present study was to evaluate facial shape characteristics in the elderly, associated with chronic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension, based on two-dimensional images of the lateral and frontal views of the face. Analysis of discriminant function and cross validation presented significant differences (p<0.01), for sexual dimorphism in both views and the presence and/or absence of diabetes and hypertension (p<0.01). For the male sex, the highest classifications were related to the complete lateral and frontal views, in 75.2% and 81.2% of cases, respectively. In terms of the female sex, they referred to the frontal view without the orolabial region or jaw (71.4%). There was variation in the facial bilateral symmetry in the elderly, with the presence of fluctuating and directional asymmetry (p<0.01). Despite morphological variations associated with aging, it is possible to use geometric morphometrics techniques to observe characteristics in facial shape related to the presence of diabetes, hypertension, and the presence or absence of both diseases.

O processo de envelhecimento é algo que ocorre naturalmente durante a vida do ser humano. Isso causa mudanças biológicas, psicológicas e sociais no corpo. A antropometria, que até o final do século XIX foi uma ferramenta comum em práticas clínicas e taxonômicas, e ganhou uma grande importância como medidas de saúde pública. Esta metodologia também é importante na avaliação de morbidades nos indivíduos e suas práticas sociais. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar características da forma facial em idosos, associados a doenças crônicas como diabetes e hipertensão, com base em imagens bidimensionais das vistas lateral e frontal do rosto. A análise da função discriminante e da validação cruzada apresentou diferenças significativas (p <0,01), para o dimorfismo sexual em ambos os pontos de vista e a presença e/ou ausência de diabetes e hipertensão (p <0,01). Para o sexo masculino, as classificações mais elevadas foram relacionadas às vistas laterais e frontais completas, em 75,2% e 81,2% dos casos, respectivamente. Para o sexo feminino, os resultados para a vista visão frontal sem a região orelabial ou maxilar foi de 71,4%. Houve variação na simetria facial bilateral dos idosos, com presença de assimetria flutuante e direcional (p <0,01). Apesar das variações morfológicas associadas ao envelhecimento, através de técnicas de morfometria geométrica é possível observar uma característica na forma facial em relação à diabetes, hipertensão e presença ou ausência de ambas as doenças.

Body size and allometric variation in facial shape in children.

OBJECTIVES: Morphological integration, or the tendency for covariation, is commonly seen in complex traits such as the human face. The effects of growth on shape, or allometry, represent a ubiquitous but poorly understood axis of integration. We address the question of to what extent age and measures of size converge on a single pattern of allometry for human facial shape. METHODS: Our study is based on two large cross-sectional cohorts of children, one from Tanzania and the other from the United States (N = 7,173). We employ 3D facial imaging and geometric morphometrics to relate facial shape to age and anthropometric measures. RESULTS: The two populations differ significantly in facial shape, but the magnitude of this difference is small relative to the variation within each group. Allometric variation for facial shape is similar in both populations, representing a small but significant proportion of total variation in facial shape. Different measures of size are associated with overlapping but statistically distinct aspects of shape variation. Only half of the size-related variation in facial shape can be explained by the first principal component of four size measures and age while the remainder associates distinctly with individual measures. CONCLUSIONS: Allometric variation in the human face is complex and should not be regarded as a singular effect. This finding has important implications for how size is treated in studies of human facial shape and for the developmental basis for allometric variation more generally.

Evaluation of face shape in Turkish individuals / Evaluacion de la forma de la cara en individuos turcos

The aim of this study was to determine the types of face shape in the Turkish population. Knowledge on face shape is important in anthropology and for planning medical procedures such as in aesthetic, maxillofacial and orthodontic surgery. The study group consisted of 1003 healthy subjects (470 male, 533 female) aged 18­68 years. Mean height, weight and body mass index (BMI) were 1.74 m, 78.65 Kg, 25.80±3.50 kg/m2 and 1.62 m, 60.55 kg, 22.87±3.49 kg/m2 in males and females, respectively. Face length (FL; the distance from nasion to gnathion) and face width (FW; bizygomatic breadth) were measured, from which a Prosopic Index (PI) was determined using the following formula: (PI= FL/FW x 100). The types of face shape were classified according to Banister's classification Type I (hypereuryprosopic), Type II (euryprosopic), Type III (mesoprosopic), Type IV (leptoprosopic), Type V (hyperleptoprosopic) in both males and females. PI was 84.31 (FL: 12.07 cm; FW: 14.34 cm) in males and 85.25 (FL: 11.30 cm; FW: 13.28 cm) in females. In males and females Type I face shape was observed in 18.1 % and 15.6 %; Type II in 35.3 % and 34.3 %; Type III in 33.2 % and 34.3 %; Type IV in 8.7 % and 11.8 %; and Type V in 4.7 % and 3.9 %, respectively. The determination of types of face shape as presented in this study may be useful for aesthetic surgical procedures as well as medical and anthropological investigations.

El objetivo fue determinar los tipos de forma de la cara en la población turca. El conocimiento de la forma de la cara es importante en antropología y para la planificación de los procedimientos médicos como la cirugía estética, maxilofacial y ortodoncia. Se analizó un grupo de 1003 sujetos sanos (470 hombres y 533 mujeres), con edades entre 18 a 68 años. La talla, peso e índice de masa corporal (IMC) fueron 1,74 m, 78,65 kg, 25,80±3,50 kg/m2 y 1,62 m, 60,55 kg, 22,87±3,49 kg/m2 en hombres y mujeres, respectivamente. Se midió el índice prosopo (IP) y se determinó la longitud de la cara (LC: la distancia desde Nasion a Gnathion) y el ancho de la cara (ancho bicigomático: AC) utilizando las siguientes fórmulas: (IP = [LC/AC] x 100). Los tipos de forma de la cara se clasificaron de acuerdo a la clasificación de Banister [Tipo I (hipereuriprosopo), Tipo II (euriprosopo), tipo III (mesoprosopo), Tipo IV (leptoprosopo) y Tipo V (hiperleptoprosopo)], tanto en hombres como en mujeres. El IP fue de 84,31 (LC: 12,07 cm; AC: 14,34 cm) en los hombres y 85,25 (LC: 11,30 cm; AC: 13,28 cm) en las mujeres. En hombres y mujeres se observó la forma Tipo I en 18,1 % y 15,6 %; Tipo II en 35,3 % y 34,3 %; Tipo III en 33,2 % y 34,3 %; Tipo IV en 8,7 % y 11,8 %; y Tipo V en 4,7 % y 3,9 %, respectivamente. La determinación de los tipos de forma de la cara presentados en este estudio pueden ser útiles para los procedimientos quirúrgicos estéticos, así como para las investigaciones médicas y antropológicas.

Three-dimensional evaluation of facial morphology in pre-school cleft patients following neonatal cheiloplasty.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the facial morphology of pre-school patients with various types of orofacial cleft after neonatal cheiloplasty in pre-school aged children; and to compare facial variability and mean shape with age-corresponding healthy controls. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The sample included 40 patients with unilateral cleft lip (CL), 22 patients with unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP), and 10 patients with bilateral cleft lip and palate (BCLP). Patients were divided into two age categories, with a mean age of 3 years and 4.5 years, respectively. The group of healthy age-matched controls contained 60 individuals. Three-dimensional virtual facial models were evaluated using geometric morphometry and multivariate statistics methods. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were found between each of the cleft groups and the controls. Color-coded maps showed facial shape deviations, which were located mainly in the nasal area and philtrum in all groups examined, and also in the buccal region and the chin in patients with UCLP or BCLP. These differences became more apparent, but not significantly so, in the older age category. CONCLUSION: Facial deviations typical of patients with clefts were observed in all of the patient groups examined. Although the analysis showed statistically significant differences in overall facial shape between patients and controls among all groups tested, the facial morphology in patients who have undergone only neonatal cheiloplasty (CL) is influenced to a small extent and may be considered satisfactory. More severe cleft types (UCLP, BCLP) together with palatoplasty, are reflected in more marked impairments in facial shape.