Many Mickles Make a Muckle: Evidence That Gender Stereotypes Reemerge Spontaneously Via Cultural Evolution.

We explore whether societal gender stereotypes re-emerge as social information is repeatedly passed from person to person. We examined whether peoples' memories of personality attributes associated with female and male social targets became increasingly consistent with societal gender stereotypes as information was passed down social transmission chains. After passing through the memories of just four generations of participants, our initially gender-balanced micro-societies became rife with traditional gender stereotypes. While we found some evidence of the re-emergence of gender stereotypes in Experiment 1, we found the effects were stronger when targets appeared in a feminine-stereotyped occupational context (Experiment 2), and a masculine-stereotyped occupational context (Experiment 3); conversely, the re-emergence of gender stereotypes was attenuated when targets appeared in a single gender context (Experiment 4). The current findings demonstrate that gender schematic memory bias, if widely shared, might cause gender stereotypes to be maintained through cultural evolution.

Gender Prototypes Hinder Bystander Intervention in Women's Sexual Harassment.

Bystander intervention is a powerful response to sexual harassment that reduces victims' burden to respond. However, gender prototypes depicting sexual harassment victims as prototypical women (i.e., stereotypically feminine) may hinder intervention when harassment targets women who deviate from this prototype. Across four preregistered experiments (N = 1,270 Americans), we test whether bystanders intervene less readily in nonprototypical (vs. prototypical) women's sexual harassment. Participants observed a man manager ask a series of increasingly sexually harassing job interview questions toward either a gender prototypical or nonprototypical woman by traits (Studies 1-3) or gender identity (Study 4). Participants were instructed to intervene to stop the interview if/when they judged the questions as inappropriate. A meta-analysis revealed participants had a greater threshold for intervention when harassment targeted a nonprototypical (vs. prototypical) woman-a small but meaningful effect. Efforts to foster bystander intervention in sexual harassment would benefit by recognizing this neglect of nonprototypical women.

The inhibition of mirror generalization of letters in school-aged children.

Gender differences in spatial abilities favor males in both childhood and adulthood. During early development, this discrepancy can be attributed, among other things, to the influence of an early testosterone surge in boys, societal stereotypes, and expectations about gender. In the present work, we created a spatial task (including letter rotation and letter mirroring) which used letters as stimuli and evaluated the performance of school-aged children (6-10 years old). During this age period, children are being taught literacy skills which rely on the reorganization of cortical networks and the breakdown of mirror generalization. We divided our sample (N = 142, 73 females) into two age groups: 1st-2nd (literacy acquisition; N = 70, 33 females) and 3rd-5th (literacy consolidation; N = 72, 40 females) graders. While boys performed significantly better in letter rotation in the older group, girls' performance remained substandard in both groups. This pattern is reversed for the mirror task, with older girls outperforming their younger counterparts and boys having similar performance in the two groups. Since the age period of our sample is not associated with large variations in the levels of reproductive steroids, we propose that the similarity of performance between younger and older girls in mental rotation of letters could be associated with society's traditional attitudes and expectations on the relationship between visual-spatial skills and gender. As for the mirror task, while only girls had a significant difference between the two age groups, boys did show an improvement, as expected for the inhibition of mirror generalization for letters during reading acquisition.

Nursing Students' Perception about Gender Inequalities Presented on Social Networks: A Qualitative Study.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, gender inequalities in nurses have been exacerbated through the images shown on social networks. This study aimed to explore and describe nursing students' experiences and perceptions about gender inequalities in nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic. A descriptive qualitative study was carried out in two universities in 264 undergraduate nursing students. The photovoice method was used to guide the study. Results: Two main categories and four subcategories were described from the data: "gender-related stereotypes", with "male leadership in a female profession" and "sexualization of female nurses" and "women's vulnerability in the pandemic" with "the gender gap in the face of increased risk of contagion " and "women's emotional fragility". Over the years, care has been considered a female task, and nursing continues to be thought of in this way. The nurse has been discriminated against, poorly considered as a professional, and, as a woman, subjected to gender roles.

Os reflexos do passado sobre a enfermagem atual brasileira: lutas, conquistas, desafios e perspectivas / Reflections of the past on current brazilian nursing: fights, achievements, challenges and perspectives / Reflexiones del pasado sobre la enfermería brasileña actual: luchas, logros, desafíos y perspectivas

Objetivo: realizar uma análise histórica dos fatos que transcorreram na enfermagem e estabelecer um padrão sócio-histórico da participação feminina na profissão e dos paradigmas enfrentados até a atualidade no Brasil. Método: estudo teórico, reflexivo, fundamentado nos achados da literatura sobre a evolução histórica da enfermagem. Resultados: a prática profissional atual ainda apresenta os ecos das conjunturas vivenciadas no passado pela relação da mulher com o progresso da assistência à saúde. Além do papel feminino na estruturação da enfermagem, a íntima conexão entre a construção social da mulher e os estereótipos projetados sobre essa profissão, ainda impõe maiores dificuldades na luta pelo reconhecimento da enfermagem como ciência. Conclusão: o modo de constituição da profissão contribuiu para que a enfermagem fosse vinculada à sexualização e ao machismo. Entretanto, a mesma tornou-se uma profissão com base científica e técnica. Rebaixar mulheres e reduzi-las ao seu corpo é discrepante das conquistas femininas atuais.

Objectives: to study the history of nursing in Brazil and to establish a historical and social pattern of female participation in the profession. The study also looked at the current situation. Method: theoretical, reflective study, based on findings in the literature on the historical evolution of nursing. Results: current professional practice still echoes the circumstances experienced in the past by women's relationship with the progress of health care. In addition to the female role in the structuring of nursing, the intimate connection between the social construction of women and the stereotypes projected on this profession, still imposes greater difficulties in the fight for the recognition of nursing as a science. Conclusion: the way in which the profession was constituted contributed for nursing to be linked to sexualization and machismo. However, it has become a profession with a scientific and technical basis. Demeaning women and reducing them to their bodies is at odds with current female achievements.

Objetivos:realizar un análisis histórico de los hechos que transcurrieron en la enfermeria y establecer un padron socio-histórico de la participación feminina en la profesión y de los paradigmas encarados hasta la actualidad en Brasil. Método: estudio teórico, reflexivo, basado en los hallazgos de la literatura sobre la evolución histórica de la enfermería. Resultados:: la práctica profesional actual todavía se hace eco de las circunstancias vividas en el pasado por la relación de las mujeres con el progreso de la atención a la salud. Además del papel femenino en la estructuración de la enfermería, la íntima conexión entre la construcción social de la mujer y los estereotipos proyectados sobre esta profesión, aún impone mayores dificultades en la lucha por el reconocimiento de la enfermería como ciencia. Conclusión: la forma en que se constituyó la profesión contribuyó a que la enfermería se vincule a la sexualización y al machismo. Sin embargo, se ha convertido en una profesión con una base científica y técnica. Degradar a las mujeres y reducirlas a sus cuerpos está reñido con los logros femeninos actuales.

Caring to deny, confront, shiver: negativity as a critique of the "natural caregiver" stereotype in nursing / Cuidar para descuidar, confrontar, enfriar: la negatividad como crítica al estereotipo del "cuidador natural" en enfermería / Cuidar para descuidar, confrontar, arrepiar: negatividade como crítica do estereótipo da "cuidadora natural" na enfermagem

ABSTRACT To discuss, based on Adorno's philosophy, the negativity of care in confronting the "natural caregiver" discourse in the profession and exercise discursive analysis of this stereotype based on the negative trihedron of care (deny, confront, shiver). Theoretical study that articulates negative dialectic with the biopolitics of caring for the body. Negativity of care, as an immanent criticism that emerges from the dialectic between help and power, aims to shiver at bodily suffering, a residue of nature violated by cultural discursive practices. We applied the methodological framework of care to deny, confront, and shiver in label analysis to highlight non-identity between nursing reality and natural caregiver affirmation. We confronted the injustices made invisible in the prejudice that women are naturally predestined to provide for others' well-being. We reflected on the contradictions and suffering of women, nurses or not, invisible in the vaunted loving care. We proposed shiver as a metaphor for deny, a critical negativity that opens to the strange coerced and mutilated in the human body.

RESUMEN Discutir, a partir de la filosofía de Adorno, la negatividad del cuidado frente al discurso del "cuidador natural" en la profesión; Ejercer el análisis discursivo de este estereotipo a partir del triángulo negativo del cuidado (descuido, confrontación, escalofrío). Estudio teórico que articula la dialéctica negativa con la biopolítica del cuidado del cuerpo. La negatividad del cuidado, como crítica inmanente que emerge de la dialéctica entre ayuda y poder, pretende hacer que la gente se estremezca ante el sufrimiento de lo corpóreo, un residuo de la naturaleza violado por prácticas discursivas culturales. Aplicamos el marco metodológico del cuidado para descuidar, confrontar y estremecer en el análisis de la etiqueta para resaltar la no identidad entre la realidad de la enfermería y la afirmación del cuidador natural. Nos enfrentamos a las injusticias que se vuelven invisibles debido al prejuicio de que las mujeres están naturalmente predestinadas a velar por el bienestar de los demás. Reflexionamos sobre las contradicciones y el sufrimiento de las mujeres, enfermeras o no, invisibles en el cacareado cuidado amoroso. Proponemos el escalofrío como metáfora del descuido, una negatividad crítica que se abre a lo extraño coaccionado y mutilado en el cuerpo humano.

RESUMO Discutir, a partir da filosofia de Adorno, a negatividade do cuidado no enfrentamento do discurso da "cuidadora natural" na profissão; exercitar a análise discursiva desse estereótipo a partir do triedro negativo do cuidar (descuidar, confrontar, arrepiar). Estudo teórico que articula a dialética negativa com a biopolítica do cuidar no corpo. A negatividade do cuidado, como crítica imanente que emerge da dialética entre ajuda e poder, visa ao arrepio diante do sofrimento do corpóreo, resíduo da natureza violentada por práticas discursivas culturais. Aplicamos o referencial metodológico do cuidar para descuidar, confrontar, arrepiar na análise do rótulo para aflorar a não identidade entre a realidade da enfermagem e a afirmação da cuidadora natural. Confrontamos as injustiças invisibilizadas no preconceito de que as mulheres seriam naturalmente predestinadas a prover o bem-estar dos outros. Refletimos sobre as contradições e os sofrimentos de mulheres, enfermeiras ou não, invisibilizados na alardeada amorosidade do cuidado. Propomos o arrepio como metáfora ao descuidado, uma negatividade crítica que se abre ao estranho coagido e mutilado no corpo humano.

Mulheres em Situação de Violência por Parceiros Íntimos: Crenças, Estereótipos e Preconceito / Women in Situations of Intimate Partner Violence: Beliefs, Stereotypes and Prejudice

Este estudo objetivou identificar crenças de mulheres em situação de violência por parceiros íntimos (VPI) relativas a esta violência e a papéis/estereótipos de gênero. Participaram trinta mulheres, que buscaram uma instituição pública de assistência e proteção à violência. Utilizou-se um roteiro semiestruturado e um questionário sociodemográfico. As entrevistas foram submetidas à Análise de Conteúdo. Os resultados apresentam-se em duas dimensões: “Crenças em relação à VPI” e “Crenças em relação a papéis de gênero”. Verifica-se que o modelo de estrutura sexista da sociedade, garante a reprodução da desigualdade de gênero e mantém ativa uma ideologia fundada nos estereótipos da força e poder masculino versus a submissão e docilidade feminina, em que a violência se faz instrumento (legitimado) estrutural e estruturante. (AU)

This study aimed to identify beliefs of women in situations of intimate partner violence (IPV) regarding this violence and gender roles/stereotypes. Thirty women participated, who sought a public institution of assistance and protection against violence. A semi-structured script and a sociodemographic questionnaire were used. The interviews were submitted to Content Analysis. The results are presented in two dimensions: “Beliefs in relation to IPV” and “Beliefs in relation to gender roles”. It is verified that the sexist structure model of society guarantees the reproduction of gender inequality and keeps active an ideology founded on stereotypes of male strength and power versus female submission and docility, in which violence becomes a (legitimate) structural and structuring instrument. (AU)

Narrativas de mujeres de mediana edad: reflexiones sobre los estereotipos de género en la construcción del cuerpo y elecciones ocupacionales / Narrativas de mulheres de meia-idade: reflexões sobre estereótipos de gênero na construção do corpo e nas escolhas ocupacionais / Narratives of middle-aged women: reflections about gender stereotypes in the construction of the body and occupational choices

Resumen Introducción Los estudios desde la perspectiva de género y los estudios feministas son aún emergentes en la Ciencia de la Ocupación. Desde el supuesto que habitamos una sociedad patriarcal, esta investigación rescata la narrativa de mujeres chilenas de mediana edad de la Región de Los Ríos, con el propósito de visibilizar cómo han construido sus vidas a partir de estereotipos de género que han determinado sus elecciones ocupacionales en función de las necesidades de los hombres, bajo un comprensión tradicional del binario femenino-masculino. Objetivo Reconocer y comprender la relación emergente entre los estereotipo de género, la construcción del cuerpo y las elecciones ocupacionales. Método Desde un posicionamiento posestructuralista feminista se realizan entrevistas con enfoque narrativo a una muestra intencionada de ocho mujeres; el análisis de discurso, como herramienta metodológica, da cuenta de la trayectoria de vida y experiencias de las mujeres en relación con el género, el cuerpo y las elecciones ocupacionales. Resultados De la investigación emergieron cinco categorías que reflejan la existencia de estereotipos de género en la construcción del cuerpo femenino que se impregnan en la identidad y elecciones ocupacionales a lo largo de su vida. Conclusión Las narrativas de las mujeres dan cuenta de la existencia de una relación dinámica emergente entre la construcción del cuerpo, estereotipos de género y elecciones ocupacionales, donde los estereotipos y el hacer se conjugan, generando una construcción del concepto mujer en un contexto socio histórico que define patrones y elecciones ocupacionales que replicarán estereotipos de género.

Resumo Introdução Estudos na perspectiva de gênero e estudos feministas são ainda emergentes na Ciência da Ocupação. Partindo do pressuposto de que vivemos em uma sociedade patriarcal, esta pesquisa resgata a narrativa de mulheres chilenas de meia-idade da região de Los Ríos, com o objetivo de tornar visível como elas construíram suas vidas com base nos estereótipos de gênero que determinaram suas escolhas ocupacionais em função das necessidades dos homens, sob uma compreensão tradicional do binário feminino-masculino. Objetivo Reconhecer e compreender a relação emergente entre estereótipos de gênero, construção corporal e escolhas ocupacionais. Método A partir de uma postura feminista pós-estruturalista, são realizadas entrevistas com abordagem narrativa com uma amostra intencional de oito mulheres. A análise do discurso, como ferramenta metodológica, foi utilizada para apresentar a trajetória de vida e experiências das mulheres em relação ao gênero, ao corpo e às escolhas ocupacionais. Resultados Da pesquisa emergiram cinco categorias que refletem a existência de estereótipos de gênero na construção dos corpos femininos, que estão impregnados na identidade e nas escolhas ocupacionais ao longo de suas vidas. Conclusão As narrativas das mulheres mostram a existência de uma relação dinâmica emergente entre a construção do corpo, estereótipos de gênero e escolhas ocupacionais, onde estereótipos e os fazeres se conjugam, gerando uma construção do conceito de mulher em um contexto sócio-histórico que define padrões e escolhas ocupacionais que irão replicar os estereótipos de gênero.

Abstract Introduction Studies from a gender perspective and feminist studies are still emerging in Occupation Science. Based on the assumption that we live in a patriarchal society, this research rescues the narrative of middle-aged Chilean women from the Los Ríos region, to make visible how they built their lives based on the gender stereotypes that determined their choices. occupations according to the needs of men, under a traditional understanding of the female-male binary. Objective Recognize and understand the emerging relationship between gender stereotypes, body construction, and occupational choices. Method From a post-structuralist feminist stance, interviews with a narrative approach are carried out with an intentional sample of eight women; Discourse analysis, as a methodological tool, gives an account of the life trajectory and experiences of women in relation to gender, body, and occupational choices. Results Five categories emerged from the research that reflect the existence of gender stereotypes in women. female body that isimpregnated in their identity and the occupational choices throughout their lives. Conclusion The women's narratives show the existence of an emerging dynamic relationship between the construction of the body, gender stereotypes, and occupational choices, where stereotypes and actions are combined, generating a construction of the concept of woman in a socio-historical context. occupational patterns and choices that will replicate gender stereotypes.

Orden de género: un reto histórico y actual para la enfermería / Gender order: a historical and current challenge for nursing / Ordem de gênero: um desafio histórico e atual para enfermagem

OBJETIVO: Identificar la presencia del orden de género a lo largo de la historia de la enfermería a través de factores y eventos que podrían haber repercutido en la identidad de la enfermería moderna. METODOLOGÍA: Trabajo de reflexión basado en una revisión panorámica de documentos originales indizados (que contaran con evaluación con pares y publicados a partir de 2017). RESULTADOS: Desde la antigüedad el menosprecio, la opresión y la subordinación de la mujer a favor del hombre han influenciado el desarrollo profesional de la enfermería. Se destacan tres elementos. Primero, que las actividades como los cuidados de la vida y la salud (propias de enfermería) han sido consideradas inherentemente femeninas, y por tanto, carentes de algún trasfondo científico. Segundo, que la opresión y lucha de poder por parte del gremio médico ha coartado la libertad en la toma de decisiones profesionales. Finalmente, se reflexiona cómo la religión (principalmente el Cristianismo) pudo haber idealizado en el imaginario colectivo una conducta obediente, servil, pasiva y humilde de parte del personal de enfermería. CONCLUSIONES: Probablemente la identidad de la enfermería moderna resulta de una compleja combinación de elementos donde un común denominador es el orden de género. Es necesario cambiar construcciones sociales nocivas (como los estereotipos), construir relaciones profesionales más justas y asumir las responsabilidades que implica el liderazgo e independencia profesional. Un papel protagónico lo puede adoptar el personal de enfermería que ejerce como docente en instituciones de educación superior, elemento clave para transmitir el orden de género.

AIM: To identify the presence of gender order throughout the history of nursing through factors and events that could have affected the identity of modern nursing. METHODS: Reflection work based on a panoramic review of indexed original papers (found in databases, peer-reviewed, and published after 2017). RESULTS: Since ancient times, underestimation, oppression, and subordination of women in favor of men have influenced the professional development of nursing. Three elements stand out. First, activities such aslife-and healthcare (very specific to nursing) have been considered inherently feminine and, therefore, lacking any scientific background. Second, the oppression and struggle for power by the medical profession have restricted freedom in professional decision-making. Finally, we reflect on how religion (mainly Christianity) could have idealized in the collective imagination the obedient, servile, passive, and humble behavior of the nurse.CONCLUSIONS: The identity of modern nursing probably results from acomplex combination of elements where a common denominator is gender order. It is necessary to change harmful social constructions (such as stereotypes), build fairer professional relationships, and assume the responsibilities that leadership and professional independence imply. Nurses who work in higher education institutions may adopt a leading role since they are key elements in transmitting the gender order

OBJETIVO: Identificar a presença da ordem de gênero ao longo da histórica da enfermagem por meio de fatores e eventos que podem ter afetado a identidade da enfermagem moderna. METODOLOGIA:Trabalho de reflexão a partir de uma revisão panorâmica de fatos históricos em documentos originais indexados. RESULTADOS: Desde a antiguidade, a subestimação, opressão e subordinação das mulheres em favor dos homens influenciaram o desenvolvimento profissional da enfermagem. Três elementos se destacam. Em primeiro lugar, que atividades como os cuidados de vida e saúde (muitoespecíficos da enfermagem) têm sido consideradas inerentemente femininas e, portanto, carentes de embasamento científico. Segundo, que a opressão e a luta pelo poder da classe médica restringiram a liberdade de decisão profissional. Por fim, refletimos sobre como a religião (principalmente o cristianismo) poderia ter idealizado no imaginário coletivo o comportamento obediente, servil, passivo e humilde do enfermeiro. CONCLUSÕES:A identidade da enfermagem moderna provavelmente resulta de uma complexa combinação de elementos onde um denominador comum é a ordem de gênero. É preciso mudar construções sociais nocivas (como os estereótipos), construir relações profissionais mais justas e assumir as responsabilidades que a liderança e a independência profissionalimplicam. Um protagonismo pode ser assumido pelos enfermeiros que atuam em instituições de ensino superior, pois são elementos-chave na transmissão da ordem de gênero

Favorable Evaluations of Black and White Women's Workplace Anger During the Era of #MeToo.

Researchers investigating gender and anger have consistently found that White women, but not White men, are evaluated unfavorably when experiencing anger in the workplace. Our project originally aimed to extend findings on White women's, Black women's, and White men's workplace anger by examining whether evaluations are exacerbated or buffered by invalidating or affirming comments from others. In stark contrast to previous research on gender stereotyping and anger evaluations, however, results across four studies (N = 1,095) showed that both Black and White women portrayed as experiencing anger in the workplace were evaluated more favorably than White men doing so. After Study 1's initial failure to conceptually replicate, we investigated whether perceivers' evaluations of women's workplace anger could have been affected by the contemporaneous cultural event of #MeToo. Supporting this possibility, we found evaluations were moderated by news engagement and beliefs that workplace opportunities are gendered. Additionally, we found invalidating comments rarely affected evaluations of a protagonist yet affirming comments tended to favorably affect evaluations. Overall, findings suggest the need for psychologists to consider the temporary, or perhaps lasting, effects of cultural events on research outcomes.

Factors Related to Intentions to Commit Dating Violence among Taiwanese University Students: Application of the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior.

Dating violence (DV) constitutes a major public health and safety issue worldwide; however, only limited research into this important subject has been conducted in Taiwan. This study examined university students' intention to commit DV, based on the expanded theory of planned behavior (TPB), with a history of family violence and gender stereotyping also included as further factors in the original TPB model. A total random sample consisting of 450 university students from four universities in four regions in Taiwan, namely, the northern, southern, central, and eastern regions, participated. Of these participants, 365 (81.1%) completed all of the parts of the questionnaires, which included a survey of demographic data, such as any history of family violence; a gender stereotyping questionnaire; and a DV behavioral intention questionnaire. The results showed that the three main variables of the TPB-that is, subjective norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control-significantly related to university students' intentions to commit DV. More specifically, university students' attitudes and subjective norms emerged as significant related factors of their intention to commit DV behaviors. Overall, the expanded TPB explained 30.4% of the variance in DV intentions, and attitude was the most significant factors after controlling the background variables. These findings can hopefully be used to help design and implement programs for the prevention of DV behaviors among university students.

Influencia del género, nivel educativo y práctica deportiva de los progenitores sobre hábitos deportivos en escolares / Influência do gênero, nível educacional e prática desportiva dos pais nos hábitos esportivos das crianças em idade escolar / Influence of gender, educational level and parents' sports practice on sports habits of school children

Resumen La importancia de los padres en la actividad física de sus hijos durante la adolescencia ha sido constatada previamente, pero pocos estudios han establecido cuáles son las variables más determinantes. El objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar las diferencias en la práctica deportiva de los adolescentes según el nivel educativo, el nivel de práctica deportiva y los estereotipos de género de sus progenitores. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 965 adolescentes y 1599 progenitores de la Región de Murcia. Los resultados mostraron diferencias en la práctica deportiva de los adolescentes al considerar el nivel educativo de las madres, la actividad física realizada por los padres para los varones, la frecuencia de práctica de las madres para las mujeres y los estereotipos de género de las madres. Como conclusiones, señalar que los estereotipos de género y el nivel educativo de los progenitores influyeron en la práctica deportiva de los adolescentes.

Resumo A importância dos pais na atividade física dos seus filhos durante a adolescência foi previamente afirmada, mas poucos estudos determinaram quais são as variáveis mais determinantes. O objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar a influência dos estereótipos de gênero, o nível educacional e o nível de prática desportiva dos pais sobre a prática desportiva dos seus filhos. A amostra foi composta por 965 adolescentes e 1599 pais da Região de Múrcia. Os resultados mostraram diferenças na prática desportiva dos adolescentes ao considerar o nível educacional das mães, a atividade física realizada pelos pais para os homens, a frequência da prática das mães para as mulheres e os estereótipos de gênero das mães. Como conclusões, é de notar que os estereótipos de gênero e o nível de educação dos pais influenciaram a prática do desporto pelos adolescentes.

Abstract The importance of parents in the physical activity of their children during adolescence has been previously established, but few studies have determined which are the most important variables. This study analyzes the influence of gender stereotypes, educational level, and the level of parents' sports practice on their children's practice. The sample included 965 adolescents and 1,599 parents from the Region of Murcia. The results showed differences in the sports practice of the adolescents when considering the educational level of their mothers, the physical activity carried out by the fathers on male children, the frequency of practice of the mothers for female children and gender stereotypes of the mothers. It found that gender stereotypes and parents' educational level influenced adolescents' sports practice.

The influence of male faces on stereotype activation among women in STEM: An ERP investigation.

Members of stereotyped groups are vigilant to situational cues signaling threats to their social identity. In one psychophysiological experiment, we examined whether mere exposure to a watching male face would increase attentional vigilance among female STEM students due to the activation of math-gender stereotypes. Male and female students performed an alleged math intelligence task while being primed with male faces or control images. Automatic responses to errors were captured with error-related negativity (ERN), a neural index of error vigilance. Women showed larger ERN upon making errors when primed with male faces compared to control images, whereas no such priming effect occurred among men. Moreover, this face priming effect was pronounced only among women highly invested in pursuing STEM careers. These findings suggest that minimalistic social cues may activate negative stereotypes early in informational processing, thereby selectively shunting attention on errors in stereotype-relevant tasks among individuals invested in the performance domain.

Exploring the views of successful applicants for medical school about gender medicine using a gender-sensitive video assignment.

BACKGROUND: Sex and gender influence health and disease outcomes, therefore, doctors should be able to deliver gender-sensitive care. To train gender-sensitive doctors, relevant sex and gender differences have to be included in medical education. In order to develop appealing, relevant, and effective education for undergraduate medical students, education should be tailored to students' level and anticipated on their ideas and assumptions. Therefore, we wanted to answer the following research questions: 1. What do aspiring medical students want to learn about gender medicine?; 2. How would they like to learn about gender medicine?; and 3. What are their ideas and assumptions about sex and gender differences in health and disease? METHODS: We performed an explorative thematic document analysis of educational assignments made by successful applicants (n = 50) during the selection procedure of their entry into medical school. To test aspirants' capacity for self-directed learning, students were asked to formulate their own study plan after they watched a video that resembled a future practical experience (a consultation with a patient). As the content of this video was gender-sensitive, the assignments of the successful applicants gave us the unique opportunity to examine aspiring medical students' views about gender medicine. RESULTS: Aspiring medical students were eager to start their training to become gender-sensitive doctors. They believed in better care for all patients and thought doctors should obtain gender competences during their medical training. Students preferred to start with acquiring basic biomedical knowledge about differences between men and women and continue their training by developing gender-sensitive communication skills in (simulated) practical settings. Students differed in their interpretation of the gender-sensitive video, some generalized potential differences to all men and all women. Teachers were considered as important role models in learning about gender medicine. CONCLUSIONS: We advise medical schools to teach gender medicine from the beginning of medical school, by focusing on sex differences first and adding gender related themes later on in the curriculum. As students may interpret gender-sensitive information differently, structurally embedding reflection on gender medicine with gender competent teachers is necessary.

Transgender and Cisgender Children's Stereotypes and Beliefs About Others' Stereotypes.

Early in childhood, children already have an awareness of prescriptive stereotypes- or beliefs about what a girl or boy should do (e.g., "girls should play with dolls"). In the present work, we investigate the relation between children's own prescriptive gender stereotypes and their perceptions of others' prescriptive gender stereotypes within three groups of children previously shown to differ in their prescriptive stereotyping-6-to-11-year-old transgender children (N = 93), cisgender siblings of transgender children (N = 55), and cisgender controls (N = 93). Cisgender and transgender children did not differ in their prescriptive stereotypes or their perceptions of others' prescriptive stereotypes, though the relationship between these variables differed by group. The more cisgender control children believed others held prescriptive stereotypes, the more they held those stereotypes, a relation that did not exist for transgender children. Further, all groups perceived the stereotypes of others to be more biased than their own stereotypes.

Gender, Race, and Grant Reviews: Translating and Responding to Research Feedback.

Grant-writing and grant-getting are key to success in many academic disciplines, but research points to gender gaps in both, especially as careers progress. Using a sample of National Institutes of Health (NIH) K-Awardees-Principal Investigators of Mentored Career Development Awards-we examined gender and race effects in response to imagined negative grant reviews that emphasized either promise or inadequacy. Women translated both forms of feedback into worse NIH priority scores than did men and showed reduced motivation to reapply for funding following the review highlighting inadequacy. Translation of feedback mediated the effects of gender on motivation, changing one's research focus, and advice-seeking. Race effects were less consistent, and race did not moderate effects of gender. We suggest that gender bias in grant reviews (i.e., greater likelihood of highlighting inadequacy in reviews of women's grants), along with gender differences in responsiveness to feedback, may contribute to women's underrepresentation in academic medicine.

Estereotipos de género y práctica de actividad física / Estereótipos de gênero e prática de atividade física / Gender stereotypes and the practice of physical activity

Los objetivos de esta investigación se centran en analizar los estereotipos de género en la actividad física y los motivos de su práctica/no práctica, en 2105, en estudiantes de enseñanza no universitaria. Los resultados indican que los chicos presentan ideas más estereotipadas sobre el binomio mujer/deporte y actividad física, variando en función de la etapa educativa. En cuanto a la práctica de actividad física, son los chicos los que realizan más horas de actividad física a la semana (de 3 a 6) frente a las chicas (de 1 a 2), donde los motivos son asociados a salud, rendimiento y aspectos sociales

Os objetivos desta investigação estão centrados na análise dos estereótipos de gênero para a atividade física e os motivos da sua prática/não prática, em 2015, em estudantes de ensino não universitário. Os resultados indicam que os meninos mostram ideias mais estereotipadas sobre o binômio mulher/desporte e atividade física, mudando em função da etapa educativa. Quanto à prática da atividade física, são os meninos os que realizam mais horas de atividade física por semana (de 3 a 6) em relação às meninas (de 1 a 2), sendo os motivos associados a saúde, rendimento e aspectos sociais

This study analyzes gender stereotypes about physical activity and the reasons for practicing/not practicing it among 2105 non-university students. The results indicate that boys hold more stereotyped views about the woman/sport and physical activity binomial, which vary according to their educational stage. Boys practice more hours of physical activity a week (3-6) compared to girls (1-2), for reasons of health, social issues, and performance

Exploring Sex Differences in the Neural Correlates of Self-and Other-Referential Gender Stereotyping.

While general self-referential processes and their neural underpinnings have been extensively investigated with neuroimaging tools, limited data is available on sex differences regarding self- and other-referential processing. To fill this gap, we measured 17 healthy women and men who performed a self- vs. other-appraisal task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) using gender-stereotypical adjectives. During the self-appraisal task, typical male (e.g., "dominant," "competitive") and female adjectives (e.g., "communicative," "sensitive") were presented and participants were asked whether these adjectives applied to themselves. During the other-appraisal task, a prototypical male (Brad Pitt) and female actor (Julia Roberts) was presented and participants were asked again to judge whether typical male and female adjectives applied to these actors. Regarding self-referential processes, women ascribed significantly more female compared to male traits to themselves. At the same time both women and men indicated a stronger desire to exhibit male over female traits. While fMRI did not detect general sex differences in the self- and other-conditions, some subtle differences were revealed between the sexes: both in right putamen and bilateral amygdala stronger gender-congruent activation was found which was however not associated with behavioral measures like the number of self-ascribed female or male attributes. Furthermore, sex hormone levels showed some associations with brain activation pointing to a different pattern in women and men. Finally, the self- vs. other-condition in general led to stronger activation of the anterior cingulate cortex while the other- vs. self-condition activated the right precuneus more strongly which is in line with previous findings. To conclude, our data lend support for subtle sex differences during processing of stereotypical gender attributes. However, it remains unclear whether such differences have a behavioral relevance. We also point to several limitations of this study including the small sample size and the lack of control for potentially different hormonal states in women.

The role of implicit gender spatial stereotyping in mental rotation performance.

Men outscore women in mental rotation. Among the possible explanations for this result are gender stereotypes. Research has shown that instructions confirming or disconfirming the gender stereotype that men are more talented than women may affect performance in some spatial tasks, such as mental rotation, but research so far has shown inconsistent or null results. However, no research to date has assessed whether participants' implicit associations linking men to spatial abilities may modulate these effects. Thus, the goal of this study was to assess the moderating role of the implicit gender spatial stereotyping, that is the automatic associations between men vs. women and space, in male and female participants receiving either stereotypical (stating that men outscore women) or stereotype-nullifying (stating that there is no gender difference) explicit instructions. Results confirmed that men performed better than women in mental rotation, but also showed that in the stereotype-nullifying condition, the higher the automatic associations between space and men the lower men's performance. The discussion focuses on the importance of considering implicit gender spatial stereotyping as a factor that can modulate mental rotation performance.

Higher social power increases occupational gender stereotyping in Chinese culture.

Prior studies have used the perspective of the social function of social power (such as how power affects interpersonal interaction between the powerful and the powerless) to explore how powerful people stereotype powerless people. In the present research, we further explored how high and low levels of social power affect occupational gender stereotyping from the perspective of how social power affects cognitive processing, that is, social categorization. We proposed that higher social power-primed participants, compared to low social power-primed participants, would be more inclined to use category-based representation and thus use stereotyping. In two studies, we investigated these effects and found that high social power, compared to low social power, increased occupational gender stereotyping in Chinese culture.