Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Children: Current Management, Controversies, and Advances.

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) in children has many causes, with its prevalence varying by age. Often presenting as hematemesis or melena, the initial treatment is stabilization of the patient, including protection of the airway, fluid resuscitation, and a transfusion hemoglobin threshold of 7 g/L. Endoscopy should be performed with the goal of using combinations of therapies to treat a bleeding lesion, generally involving epinephrine injection along with either cautery, hemoclips, or hemospray. This review discusses the diagnosis and treatment of variceal and non-variceal gastrointestinal bleeding in children with a focus on current advances in the treatment of severe UGIB.

Case report: Endoscopic Hemoclip treatment for massive hematemesis caused by a Dieulafoy's lesion on duodenal papilla caused acute pancreatitis.

Background: Dieulafoy's lesion is an uncommon cause of hemorrhage of the digestive tract. It often presents with urgent and massive bleeding usually leading to shock, even death. Dieulafoy's lesions have been reported throughout the digestive tract but which occurred on duodenal papilla were particularly rare and presented challenges in the choice of hemostasis. Case presentation: A 66-year-old man with melena for 2 days was admitted. Gastrointestinal endoscopy revealed blood clots covering the duodenal papilla with oozing blood. During the procedure of trying to place a plastic stent into the duodenal papilla first, the hemorrhage began to present pulsating bleeding. The patient went into shock. With consent, two titanium clips were inserted to clamp the bleeding site to stop the bleeding. The patient complained of epigastric pain 14 h after the endoscopy. An abdominal CT scan showed signs of acute pancreatitis. Endoscopy was performed to remove the titanium clips and showed a vessel stump on the duodenal papilla. The patient was discharged from the hospital on the 14th day and followed for 6 months with no recurrence. Conclusion: This case was diagnosed with a Dieulafoy's lesion on the duodenal papilla, which has rarely been reported. Hematemesis was stopped by clamping the vessel stump with titanium clips but caused acute pancreatitis. Reviewing the treatment, electrocoagulation might be a better choice, and life support treatment, including central vena catheterization and an adequate supply of blood products, should be prepared in advance to provide extra time for the stent placement or vascular intervention treatment.

An Alternative Method for Treating Dumping Syndrome Using Hemoclips.

Surgeries for obesity can lead to complications. Dumping syndrome is one such complication caused by the quick passage of hyperosmolar chyme from the stomach to the duodenum. Mild cases can be cured with dietary modification and medical treatment. However, refractory cases may need invasive treatment options, such as transoral outlet reduction or surgery. We successfully treated a 48-year-old female with dumping syndrome, using a combination of argon plasma coagulation and hemoclips to narrow the pyloric lumen. We suggest that this new technique could be a cheap and easily accessible alternative to surgery, especially in countries where the specialised devices needed to treat such cases are unavailable.

Endoscopic closure of a postoperative rectal anastomotic leakage with hemoclips: A case report.

INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE: Hemoclips have been used to protect leakage after endoscopic resection of large colorectal polyps or early-staged rectal cancer, or for perforation of the sigmoid colon during colonoscopy. However, endoscopic clips were seldom used to manage anastomotic leakage after low anterior resection of rectal cancer. CASE PRESENTATION: A patient with postoperative anastomotic leakage after low anterior resection for rectal cancer was successfully treated by endoscopic hemoclips under colonoscopic vision after failure of conservative treatment. Postoperative course was uncomplicated and the patient was discharged from the hospital seven days later. CLINICAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Endoscopic hemoclips should be considered as an alternative option for the treatment of an anastomotic leakage in cases where conservative treatment has failed. As they are safe and effective for closure, however good bowel preparation and strict inclusion criteria are required.

Randomized Controlled Trial of Over-the-Scope Clip as Initial Treatment of Severe Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: No prior randomized controlled trial (RCT) has reported patient outcomes of large over-the-scope clip (OTSC) compared to standard hemostasis as initial endoscopic treatment of severe NVUGIB. This was our study aim. METHODS: Patients with bleeding ulcers or Dieulafoy's lesions and major stigmata of hemorrhage - SRH (active spurting bleeding, visible vessel, or clot) - or lesser SRH (oozing bleeding or flat spots - with arterial blood flow by Doppler probe) were randomized to OTSC or standard endoscopic hemostasis (with hemoclips or multipolar electrocoagulation - MPEC). Patients and their healthcare providers were blinded to treatments and made all post-randomization management decisions. Ulcer patients received high dose intravenous infusions of proton pump inhibitors (PPI) for 3 days, then 27 days of oral PPI. 30 day outcomes were prospectively recorded; data management was with SAS; and data analysis was by a statistician. RESULTS: 53 patients (25 OTSC, 28 Standard) were randomized, with similar baseline risk factors. However, there were significant differences in OTSC vs. Standard groups in rates of rebleeding (4% vs. 28.6%; p = .017; relative risk 0.10, 95% confidence intervals 0.01, 0.91; number needed to treat 4); severe complications (0 % vs. 14.3%); and post-randomization units of red cell transfusions (0.04 vs. 0.68). All rebleeds occurred in patients with major SRH and none with lesser SRH. CONCLUSION: 1. OTSC significantly reduced rates of rebleeding, severe complications, and post-randomization red cell transfusions. 2. Patients with major stigmata benefited significantly from hemostasis with OTSC, but those with lesser stigmata did not. (ClinicalTrials.gov, Number: NCT03065465).

Cumulative evidence for reducing recurrence of colonic diverticular bleeding using endoscopic clipping versus band ligation: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Either clipping or band ligation will become the most common endoscopic treatment for colonic diverticular bleeding (CDB). Rebleeding is a significant clinical outcome of CDB, but there is no cumulative evidence comparing reduction of short-term and long-term rebleeding between them. Thus, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine which endoscopic treatment is more effective to reduce recurrence of CDB. METHODS: A comprehensive search of the databases PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase was performed through December 2019. Main outcomes were early and late rebleeding rates, defined as bleeding within 30 days and 1 year of endoscopic therapy for CDB. Initial hemostasis, need for transcatheter arterial embolization, or surgery were also assessed. Overall pooled estimates were calculated. RESULTS: Sixteen studies fulfilled the eligibility criteria, and a total of 790 participants were included. The pooled prevalence of early rebleeding was significantly lower for band ligation than clipping (0.08 vs 0.19; heterogeneity test, P = 0.012). The pooled prevalence of late rebleeding was significantly lower for band ligation than clipping (0.09 vs 0.29; heterogeneity test, P = 0.024). No significant difference of initial hemostasis rate was noted between the two groups. Pooled prevalence of need for transcatheter arterial embolization or surgery was significantly lower for band ligation than clipping (0.01 vs 0.02; heterogeneity test, P = 0.031). There were two cases with colonic diverticulitis due to band ligation but none in clipping. CONCLUSION: Band ligation therapy was more effective compared with clipping to reduce recurrence of colonic diverticular hemorrhage over short-term and long-term durations.

Terapia endoscópica combinada en hemorragia diverticular de colon / Combined endoscopic therapy for colonic diverticular bleeding

La hemorragia diverticular es la causa más frecuente de hemorragia digestiva baja. La hemorragia es abrupta, indolora, abundante. La mayoría de los divertículos que sangran se localizan en el lado derecho, este sangrado se autolimita hasta en un 80% de los casos. Cuando no se autolimita su manejo puede llegar a ser complejo. El manejo de estos sangrados, pueden variar desde conservador, endoscópico, arteriografía más embolización y el quirúrgico. Entre las alternativas de manejo endoscópico, tenemos la terapia de inyección, la térmica, hemoclips, ligadura con banda. El presente caso es de un paciente con hemorragia diverticular en el que se realizó terapia endoscopica combinada, infiltración de adrenalina, aplicación indirecta de hemoclips y aplicación tópica de ácido tranexámico que es un antifibrinolítico.

Diverticular bleeding is the most common cause of lower GI bleeding. The bleeding is most often abrupt, painless and abundant. Most of the bleeding diverticula are located on the right side of the colon, this bleeding is self-limited in up to 80% of cases. When it is not, it could turn into a difficult situation to manage. The management of these bleeds can vary from conservative to an endoscopic, arteriography plus embolization and surgical. Among the endoscopic management alternatives, we have injection therapy, thermal therapy, hemoclips, band ligation. The present case is about a patient with diverticular bleeding who underwent combined endoscopic therapy, adrenaline infiltration, indirect application of hemoclips, and topical application of tranexamic acid, which is an antifibrinolytic.

Hemorragia digestiva alta causada por pólipo gástrico hiperplásico: relato de caso / Upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage caused by hyperplastic polyp: case report

Conceitualmente, hemorragia digestiva alta (EDA) é definida como qualquer sangramento de localização proximal ao ângulo de Treitz na prática originária do esôfago, estômago e duodeno. Apesar dos avanços, tanto na área diagnóstica quanto terapêutica, a hemorragia digestiva continua sendo uma importante causa de morbimortalidade, com alta incidência e de grande impacto econômico. Mesmo com novas técnicas endoscópicas, a mortalidade permanece elevada com o passar dos anos. No presente artigo, relatamos o caso de uma paciente de 80 anos de idade que deu entrada em nosso serviço, referindo 2 episódios de hematêmeses nas 12 horas que antecederam à admissão hospitalar. Após estabilização hemodinâmica, foi submetida à EDA que revelou grande pólipo gástrico, sem sinais de sangramento ativo. Optou-se por terapia mecânica hemostática combinada (endoloop e hemoclips), com sucesso. Porém houve ressangramento da lesão, com instabilidade hemodinâmica, e a segunda tentativa de hemostasia mecânica foi associada à correção do INR com plasma, já que a paciente fazia uso crônico de warfarin devido à fibrilação atrial crônica. Paciente evoluiu bem, tendo alta após 3 dias da segunda abordagem endoscópica. Estudos recentes evidenciam que a terapia combinada é mais efetiva do que a monoterapia no controle das hemorragias digestivas altas. No presente caso, optamos por dois métodos mecânicos, com êxito somente após a segunda abordagem. Neste caso, a coagulopatia foi o principal fator predisponente na ocorrência do ressagramento. Portanto sempre se deve atentar para sua correção em casos em que se acredite que a alteração possa influenciar negativamente no prognóstico.

Conceptually, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is defined as any bleeding located proximal to the angle of Treitz, originating from the esophagus, stomach and duodenum. Despite advances in the diagnostic and therapeutic methods, gastrointestinal bleeding remains a important cause of morbidity and mortality, with high incidence and economic impact. Even with new endoscopic techniques, mortality remains high over the years. In this article, we report a case of a 80-year-old woman who was admitted in our hospital, referring 2 episodes of hematemeses, 12 hrs before the admission. After hemodynamic stabilization, we submit de patient to a EGD that revealed a large gastric polyp with no signs of active bleeding. We chose a combined therapy, mechanical and haemostatic (end loop and hem clips), successfully. But after this, there was rebreeding, hemodynamic instability, and a second attempt was tried. In the second approach we associated mechanical therapy to correction of INR with plasma, since the patient had chronic use of warfare due to chronic atria fibrillation. Patient recovered well and was discharged three days after the second endoscopic approach. Recent studies show that combined therapy is more effective than monoterapia in controlling high digestive bleeding. In this case we chose two mechanical methods, successfully only after the second approach. In this case the coagulopathy was the main predisposing factor in the rebleeding occurrence. Therefore we must always be attentive to its correction in cases where we believe that it can negatively influence the prognosis.

Is the use of prophylactic hemoclips in the endoscopic resection of large pedunculated polyps useful? A prospective and randomized study.

BACKGROUND: The methods for preventing post-polypectomy bleeding (PPB) are not standardised and there are groups that use hemoclips for this purpose. OBJECTIVE: To study whether the use of hemoclips reduces PPB complications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospective, randomised study of patients with pedunculated polyps larger than 10 mm. The patients were included in two groups (hemoclip before polypectomy -HC- and standard polypectomy -SP-). This study has been registered with the trial registration number NCT01565993. RESULTS: 105 polypectomies were performed (98 patients), 66 (62.9%) in the HC group. The total rate of complications was 10,6% in the HC group (4.5% early bleeding, 1.5% severe delayed bleeding, 4,5% mucosal burns, 1.5% perforation). In the SP group, the rate of total complications was 7,7%, (7,7% early bleeding, no significant differences). In view of the unexpected increase in the morbidity of the hemoclip group, the study was suspended without reaching the sample size. In an ad hoc analysis, which includes the standard polypectomy patients who refused to participate in the study (35 polyps), the total morbidity was 5,7% (no perforations and 2 patients with premature bleeding).When we compared the morbidity of the HC group to the morbidity of SP group plus R group (74 polyps), we also failed to detect any significant differences in terms of PPB, but did in terms of perforation. CONCLUSION: The prophylactic use of hemoclips in polypectomies of large pedunculated polyps leads to a further risk of mucosal burns and perforation that is not acceptable, and does not reduce the risk of PPB.

Is the use of prophylactic hemoclips in the endoscopic resection of large pedunculated polyps useful? A prospective and randomized study.

BACKGROUND: The methods for preventing post-polypectomy bleeding (PPB) are not standardised and there are groups that use hemoclips for this purpose. OBJECTIVE: To study whether the use of hemoclips reduces PPB complications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospective, randomised study of patients with pedunculated polyps larger than 10 mm. The patients were included in two groups (hemoclip before polypectomy -HC- and standard polypectomy -SP-). This study has been registered with the trial registration number NCT01565993. RESULTS: 105 polypectomies were performed (98 patients), 66 (62.9%) in the HC group. The total rate of complications was 10,6% in the HC group (4.5% early bleeding, 1.5% severe delayed bleeding, 4,5% mucosal burns, 1.5% perforation). In the SP group, the rate of total complications was 7,7%, (7,7% early bleeding, no significant differences). In view of the unexpected increase in the morbidity of the hemoclip group, the study was suspended without reaching the sample size. In an ad hoc analysis, which includes the standard polypectomy patients who refused to participate in the study (35 polyps), the total morbidity was 5,7% (no perforations and 2 patients with premature bleeding).When we compared the morbidity of the HC group to the morbidity of SP group plus R group (74 polyps), we also failed to detect any significant differences in terms of PPB, but did in terms of perforation. CONCLUSION: The prophylactic use of hemoclips in polypectomies of large pedunculated polyps leads to a further risk of mucosal burns and perforation that is not acceptable, and does not reduce the risk of PPB.