The contributions of James Carmichael Smyth, Archibald Menzies and Robert Jackson to the treatment of typhus in royal naval vessels in the late 18th century.

In late 18th century Britain, typhus fever plagued the mass mobilisation of soldiers and posed a significant challenge to physicians of the time. Epidemic typhus was spread through highly infectious faeces of infected lice and carried a high mortality in patients and healthcare staff alike. Physicians James Carmichael Smyth (1741-1821) and Archibald Menzies (1754-1842) theorized that typhus fever was caused by infection of human exhalation. They trialled the use of vapourised nitrous acid to fumigate patients, their clothes and their bedspace, with apparent success. Despite this, typhus fever continued to ravage deployments of soldiers into the early 19th century, stimulating the continuing evolution of the understanding of typhus and its treatment.

Aerosol transmission of human pathogens: From miasmata to modern viral pandemics and their preservation potential in the Anthropocene record.

Ongoing uncertainty over the relative importance of aerosol transmission of COVID-19 is in part rooted in the history of medical science and our understanding of how epidemic diseases can spread through human populations. Ancient Greek medical theory held that such illnesses are transmitted by airborne pathogenic emanations containing particulate matter ("miasmata"). Notable Roman and medieval scholars such as Varro, Ibn al-Khatib and Fracastoro developed these ideas, combining them with early germ theory and the concept of contagion. A widely held but vaguely defined belief in toxic miasmatic mists as a dominant causative agent in disease propagation was overtaken by the science of 19th century microbiology and epidemiology, especially in the study of cholera, which was proven to be mainly transmitted by contaminated water. Airborne disease transmission came to be viewed as burdened by a dubious historical reputation and difficult to demonstrate convincingly. A breakthrough came with the classic mid-20th century work of Wells, Riley and Mills who proved how expiratory aerosols (their "droplet nuclei") could transport still-infectious tuberculosis bacteria through ventilation systems. The topic of aerosol transmission of pathogenic respiratory diseases assumed a new dimension with the mid-late 20th century "Great Acceleration" of an increasingly hypermobile human population repeatedly infected by different strains of zoonotic viruses, and has taken centre stage this century in response to outbreaks of new respiratory infections that include coronaviruses. From a geoscience perspective, the consequences of pandemic-status diseases such as COVID-19, produced by viral pathogens utilising aerosols to infect a human population currently approaching 8 billion, are far-reaching and unprecedented. The obvious and sudden impacts on for example waste plastic production, water and air quality and atmospheric chemistry are accelerating human awareness of current environmental challenges. As such, the "anthropause" lockdown enforced by COVID-19 may come to be seen as a harbinger of change great enough to be preserved in the Anthropocene stratal record.

[Historical, clinical and epidemiological aspects of poliomyelitis in Mexico (1946-1960)]. / Historical, clinical and epidemiological aspects of poliomyelitis in Mexico (1946-1960).

Poliomyelitis emerged in Europe as an epidemic disease at the end of the 19th century. During the thirties of the twentieth century it reached great intensity in the United States and Canada, but it was after the Second World War when the disease became a serious world public health problem, which punished several countries of the world, including Mexico. Poliomyelitis is a very contagious viral disease that invades the central nervous system (destroys motor neurons) that frightened the Mexican population in the first half of the twentieth century, not so much by high mortality and morbidity figures but by its paralytic sequels, like the disability, and by the fact that it affected one of the most vulnerable population groups: children. The disease mainly affected children under five years of age, being rare in the first months of life of the newborn due to the protective effect of immunity that the mother transfers to the son through breast milk; After eight months, at the end of the feed, the infant could be infected by poliovirus by invading the spinal cord and producing paralysis, most commonly of the legs or trunk. Likewise, it caused a paralysis in the respiratory muscles (diaphragm) of children, who had to help them to breathe since, if not, they were suffocated, so they were introduced in machines commonly known as steel lungs or lungs of Emerson type (machine that allows a person to breathe when he lost control of his respiratory muscles, such as the diaphragm, invented in 1928 by the American engineer Philip Drinker).

La poliomielitis emergió en Europa como enfermedad epidémica a finales del siglo XIX. Durante los años treinta del siglo XX alcanzó gran intensidad en los Estados Unidos y Canadá, pero fue tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial cuando la enfermedad se convirtió en un grave problema de salud pública mundial que castigó terriblemente a varios países del mundo, incluyendo a México. La poliomielitis es una enfermedad viral muy contagiosa que invade el sistema nervioso central (destruye las neuronas motoras) que atemorizó a la población mexicana en la primera mitad del siglo XX, no tanto por las altas cifras de mortalidad y morbilidad sino por sus secuelas paralíticas, como la invalidez, y por el hecho de que afectó a uno de los grupos poblacionales más vulnerables: los niños. La enfermedad afectaba principalmente a los niños menores de cinco años, siendo poco frecuente en los primeros meses de vida del recién nacido debido al efecto protector de la inmunidad que le transfiere la madre al hijo a través de la leche materna; después de ocho meses, al término de la alimentación, el infante podía ser infectado por el poliovirus invadiendo la medula espinal y produciendo la parálisis, más comúnmente de las piernas o tronco. Asimismo, ocasionaba una parálisis en los músculos respiratorios (diafragma) de los niños, a quienes había que auxiliarlos a respirar ya que, si no, se asfixiaban, por lo que se les introducía en unas máquinas conocidas comúnmente como pulmones de acero o pulmotores de tipo Emerson (máquina que permite a una persona respirar cuando esta perdió el control de sus músculos respiratorios, como el diafragma, inventada en 1928 por el ingeniero estadounidense Philip Drinker).

Aspectos históricos, clínicos y epidemiológicos de la poliomielitis en México (1946 - 1960) / Historical, clinical and epidemiological aspects of poliomyelitis in Mexico (1946-1960)

La poliomielitis emergió en Europa como enfermedad epidémica a finales del siglo XIX. Durante los años treinta del siglo XX alcanzó gran intensidad en los Estados Unidos y Canadá, pero fue tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial cuando la enfermedad se convirtió en un grave problema de salud pública mundial que castigó terriblemente a varios países del mundo, incluyendo a México. La poliomielitis es una enfermedad viral muy contagiosa que invade el sistema nervioso central (destruye las neuronas motoras) que atemorizó a la población mexicana en la primera mitad del siglo XX, no tanto por las altas cifras de mortalidad y morbilidad sino por sus secuelas paralíticas, como la invalidez, y por el hecho de que afectó a uno de los grupos poblacionales más vulnerables: los niños. La enfermedad afectaba principalmente a los niños menores de cinco años, siendo poco frecuente en los primeros meses de vida del recién nacido debido al efecto protector de la inmunidad que le transfiere la madre al hijo a través de la leche materna; después de ocho meses, al término de la alimentación, el infante podía ser infectado por el poliovirus invadiendo la medula espinal y produciendo la parálisis, más comúnmente de las piernas o tronco. Asimismo, ocasionaba una parálisis en los músculos respiratorios (diafragma) de los niños, a quienes había que auxiliarlos a respirar ya que, si no, se asfixiaban, por lo que se les introducía en unas máquinas conocidas comúnmente como pulmones de acero o pulmotores de tipo Emerson (máquina que permite a una persona respirar cuando esta perdió el control de sus músculos respiratorios, como el diafragma, inventada en 1928 por el ingeniero estadounidense Philip Drinker).

Poliomyelitis emerged in Europe as an epidemic disease at the end of the 19th century. During the thirties of the twentieth century it reached great intensity in the United States and Canada, but it was after the Second World War when the disease became a serious world public health problem, which punished several countries of the world, including Mexico. Poliomyelitis is a very contagious viral disease that invades the central nervous system (destroys motor neurons) that frightened the Mexican population in the first half of the twentieth century, not so much by high mortality and morbidity figures but by its paralytic sequels, like the disability, and by the fact that it affected one of the most vulnerable population groups: children. The disease mainly affected children under five years of age, being rare in the first months of life of the newborn due to the protective effect of immunity that the mother transfers to the son through breast milk; After eight months, at the end of the feed, the infant could be infected by poliovirus by invading the spinal cord and producing paralysis, most commonly of the legs or trunk. Likewise, it caused a paralysis in the respiratory muscles (diaphragm) of children, who had to help them to breathe since, if not, they were suffocated, so they were introduced in machines commonly known as steel lungs or lungs of Emerson type (machine that allows a person to breathe when he lost control of his respiratory muscles, such as the diaphragm, invented in 1928 by the American engineer Philip Drinker).

Las enfermedades emergentes y reemergentes: una mirada desde la obra del Dr. Juan Guiteras Gener / Emerging and re-emerging diseases: a look from the work of Dr. Juan Guiteras Gener

RESUMEN Se describen los principales aspectos de la labor del Dr. Juan Guiteras con relación a la sanidad cubana y a los avances de la ciencia de su época. Se presenta la situación higiénico-epidemiológica y las principales actividades de control realizadas bajo su dirección. Se siguió el método histórico-lógico, apoyado en la técnica de la revisión documental. En documentos del Archivo Histórico Provincial José Jacinto Milanés, y en artículos científicos del período, se revisaron informaciones y estadísticas de las principales epidemias ocurridas en Cuba entre 1900 y 1925: viruela, paludismo, fiebre amarilla, poliomielitis, peste bubónica, la gripe de 1918-1919 y la tuberculosis. Estas enfermedades se caracterizaron por una alta morbilidad y mortalidad. La respuesta institucional ante las epidemias fue acertada y oportuna, a partir de los recursos y avances científicos con los que contaban: permitió erradicar la fiebre amarilla (1908), la peste bubónica (1915), la viruela (1923), y disminuir la morbilidad y mortalidad de la gripe, la tuberculosis, la fiebre tifoidea, la poliomielitis y el paludismo. El Dr. Guiteras tuvo una participación decisiva en el control de las epidemias y en la sanidad de la Isla, desde sus altos cargos en el ramo (AU).

ABSTRACT The main aspects of Juan Guiteras Gener's work in relation to Cuban health care and to the scientific advances of his times are described. The hygienic-epidemiological situation of those times and the main control activities carried out under his direction are presented. The historical-logical method was followed, based on documental review technique. Information and statistics of the main epidemics that occurred in Cuba in the period 1900-1925: smallpox, malaria, yellow fever, poliomyelitis, bubonic plague, 1918-1919 influenza, and tuberculosis were reviewed in documents of the Archivo Histórico Provincial José Jacinto Milanés[Provincial Historic Archive Jose Jacinto Milanes] and in scientific articles of the period. Those diseases were characterized by a high morbidity and mortality. The institutional answer toward epidemics was successful and timely, based on the resources and scientific advances then had: it allowed to eradicate yellow fever (1908), bubonic plague (1915), smallpox (1923) and decrease the morbidity and mortality of influenza, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, poliomyelitis and malaria. Doctor Guiteras made a decisive contribution in the control of epidemics and health in the Island, due to his high responsibilities in the field (AU).

La situación higiénico-epidemiológica en Cuba durante la época de Juan Guiteras / Hygienic and epidemiological situation in Cuba during Juan Guiteras period

Introducción: Se describen los principales aspectos de la labor profesional del doctor Guiteras en relación con la sanidad cubana. Objetivo: Presentar la situación higiénico-epidemiológica durante la época de trabajo de Juan Guiteras y las principales actividades de control realizadas bajo su dirección. Método: Se siguió el método histórico lógico, apoyado en la técnica de la revisión documental. Se revisaron estadísticas de las principales epidemias ocurridas en Cuba entre 1900 y 1925 existentes en la Dirección Nacional de Estadísticas del Ministerio de Salud Pública, documentos de la Oficina del Historiador de la Salud Pública, y artículos científicos del período. Resultados: Se refiere la evolución de la salud pública la época. Las principales epidemias ocurridas: viruela, paludismo, fiebre amarilla, poliomielitis, peste bubónica, la gripe de 1918-1919 y la tuberculosis. Estas enfermedades se caracterizaron por una alta morbilidad y mortalidad. La respuesta institucional ante las epidemias fue acertada y oportuna: permitió erradicar la fiebre amarilla (1908), la peste bubónica (1915), la viruela (1923) y disminuir la morbilidad y mortalidad de la gripe, la tuberculosis y la fiebre tifoidea, la poliomielitis y el paludismo. Conclusiones: Guiteras tiene una participación decisiva en el control de las epidemias, y en el control de la sanidad de la Isla, desde sus altos cargos en el ramo. La respuesta institucional ante las epidemias es acertada y oportuna a partir de los recursos y avances científicos con los que contaban(AU)

Introduction: The main aspects of the professional work of Dr. Guiteras in relation to Cuban health are described. Objective: To present the hygienic-epidemiological situation during Juan Guiteras' work period and the main control activities carried out under his management. Method: The logical- historical method was followed and this was supported by the technique of documentary revision. Statistical analyzes of the major epidemics occurring in Cuba between 1900 and 1925 (in the National Statistics Office of MINSAP), documents of the Office of the Public Health's Historian, and scientific articles of the time were reviewed. Results: It refers to the evolution of public health in that period. The main epidemics occurred: smallpox, malaria, yellow fever, poliomyelitis, bubonic plague, 1918-1919 influenza, and tuberculosis. These were characterized by high morbidity and mortality. The institutional response to the epidemics was successful and appropriate: it allowed the eradication of yellow fever (1908), bubonic plague (1915), smallpox (1923), and reduced morbidity and mortality of influenza, tuberculosis and typhoid fever, as well as polio and malaria. Conclusions: Guiteras has a decisive participation in the control of the epidemics, as well as in the control of the health of the Island from his high positions in the field. The institutional response to the epidemics are successful and appropriate taking into account the resources and scientific advances they has(AU)

Rapid mortality transition of Pacific Islands in the 19th century.

The depopulation of Pacific islands during the 16th to 19th centuries is a striking example of historical mass mortality due to infectious disease. Pacific Island populations have not been subject to such cataclysmic infectious disease mortality since. Here we explore the processes which could have given rise to this shift in infectious disease mortality patterns. We show, using mathematical models, that the population dynamics exhibited by Pacific Island populations are unlikely to be the result of Darwinian evolution. We propose that extreme mortality during first-contact epidemics is a function of epidemiological isolation, not a lack of previous selection. If, as pathogens become established in populations, extreme mortality is rapidly suppressed by herd immunity, Pacific Island population mortality patterns can be explained with no need to invoke genetic change. We discuss the mechanisms by which this could occur, including (i) a link between the proportion of the population transmitting infectious agents and case-fatality rates, and (ii) the course of infection with pathogens such as measles and smallpox being more severe in adults than in children. Overall, we consider the present-day risk of mass mortality from newly emerging infectious diseases is unlikely to be greater on Pacific islands than in other geographical areas.