Social determinants, symptoms and mental problems in adults internally displaced by armed conflict. Soacha, Colombia, 2019.

OBJECTIVE: To characterise social determinants of health, mental health problems and potentially problematic symptoms in the adult population displaced by internal armed conflict in Colombia. METHODS: Cross-sectional descriptive study with a random sample of 98 adults forcefully displaced to Soacha, Colombia, due to internal armed conflict. The Self Report Questionnaire to detect potentially problematic mental health problems and symptoms, and a structured questionnaire on social determinants of health were applied. RESULTS: The median age was 38 [interquartile range, 28-46] years, and women predominated (69.39%). The median time since displacement was 36 [16-48] months, and time since settlement in Soacha, 48 [5-48] months. 86.32% survived on less than the minimum wage per month and 93.87% did not have an employment contract. 42.86% and 7.14% reported being owners of their homes before and after displacement, respectively. Upon arriving in Soacha, 79.60% went to primary support networks and 3% to institutions. Before displacement, 16.33% lacked health insurance and 27.55% afterwards. Regarding mental health problems; there were possible depressive or anxious disorders in 57.29%; possible psychosis in 36.73%; and potentially problematic symptoms in 91.66%, being more prevalent and serious in women (p = 0.0025). CONCLUSIONS: A deterioration in living conditions and a higher prevalence of potentially problematic mental health problems and symptoms was reported in displaced adult populations settled in Soacha compared to other regions of the country. Analyses with complementary perspectives are required to evaluate these differences.

The role of genetic selection and climatic factors in the dispersal of anatomically modern humans out of Africa.

The evolutionarily recent dispersal of anatomically modern humans (AMH) out of Africa (OoA) and across Eurasia provides a unique opportunity to examine the impacts of genetic selection as humans adapted to multiple new environments. Analysis of ancient Eurasian genomic datasets (~1,000 to 45,000 y old) reveals signatures of strong selection, including at least 57 hard sweeps after the initial AMH movement OoA, which have been obscured in modern populations by extensive admixture during the Holocene. The spatiotemporal patterns of these hard sweeps provide a means to reconstruct early AMH population dispersals OoA. We identify a previously unsuspected extended period of genetic adaptation lasting ~30,000 y, potentially in the Arabian Peninsula area, prior to a major Neandertal genetic introgression and subsequent rapid dispersal across Eurasia as far as Australia. Consistent functional targets of selection initiated during this period, which we term the Arabian Standstill, include loci involved in the regulation of fat storage, neural development, skin physiology, and cilia function. Similar adaptive signatures are also evident in introgressed archaic hominin loci and modern Arctic human groups, and we suggest that this signal represents selection for cold adaptation. Surprisingly, many of the candidate selected loci across these groups appear to directly interact and coordinately regulate biological processes, with a number associated with major modern diseases including the ciliopathies, metabolic syndrome, and neurodegenerative disorders. This expands the potential for ancestral human adaptation to directly impact modern diseases, providing a platform for evolutionary medicine.

Pathogenomics of Helicobacter pylori.

The human stomach bacterium Helicobacter pylori, the causative agent of gastritis, ulcers and adenocarcinoma, possesses very high genetic diversity. H. pylori has been associated with anatomically modern humans since their origins over 100,000 years ago and has co-evolved with its human host ever since. Predominantly intrafamilial and local transmission, along with genetic isolation, genetic drift, and selection have facilitated the development of distinct bacterial populations that are characteristic for large geographical areas. H. pylori utilizes a large arsenal of virulence and colonization factors to mediate the interaction with its host. Those include various adhesins, the vacuolating cytotoxin VacA, urease, serine protease HtrA, the cytotoxin-associated genes pathogenicity island (cagPAI)-encoded type-IV secretion system and its effector protein CagA, all of which contribute to disease development. While many pathogenicity-related factors are present in all strains, some belong to the auxiliary genome and are associated with specific phylogeographic populations. H. pylori is naturally competent for DNA uptake and recombination, and its genome evolution is driven by extraordinarily high recombination and mutation rates that are by far exceeding those in other bacteria. Comparative genome analyses revealed that adaptation of H. pylori to individual hosts is associated with strong selection for particular protein variants that facilitate immune evasion, especially in surface-exposed and in secreted virulence factors. Recent studies identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in H. pylori that are associated with the development of severe gastric disease, including gastric cancer. Here, we review the current knowledge about the pathogenomics of H. pylori.

Human Genetic Research in Wallacea and Sahul: Recent Findings and Future Prospects.

Genomic sequence data from worldwide human populations have provided a range of novel insights into our shared ancestry and the historical migrations that have shaped our global genetic diversity. However, a comprehensive understanding of these fundamental questions has been impeded by the lack of inclusion of many Indigenous populations in genomic surveys, including those from the Wallacean archipelago (which comprises islands of present-day Indonesia located east and west of Wallace's and Lydekker's Lines, respectively) and the former continent of Sahul (which once combined New Guinea and Australia during lower sea levels in the Pleistocene). Notably, these regions have been important areas of human evolution throughout the Late Pleistocene, as documented by diverse fossil and archaeological records which attest to the regional presence of multiple hominin species prior to the arrival of anatomically modern human (AMH) migrants. In this review, we collate and discuss key findings from the past decade of population genetic and phylogeographic literature focussed on the hominin history in Wallacea and Sahul. Specifically, we examine the evidence for the timing and direction of the ancient AMH migratory movements and subsequent hominin mixing events, emphasising several novel but consistent results that have important implications for addressing these questions. Finally, we suggest potentially lucrative directions for future genetic research in this key region of human evolution.

Evaluating the Impact of Sex-Biased Genetic Admixture in the Americas through the Analysis of Haplotype Data.

A general imbalance in the proportion of disembarked males and females in the Americas has been documented during the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and the Colonial Era and, although less prominent, more recently. This imbalance may have left a signature on the genomes of modern-day populations characterised by high levels of admixture. The analysis of the uniparental systems and the evaluation of continental proportion ratio of autosomal and X chromosomes revealed a general sex imbalance towards males for European and females for African and Indigenous American ancestries. However, the consistency and degree of this imbalance are variable, suggesting that other factors, such as cultural and social practices, may have played a role in shaping it. Moreover, very few investigations have evaluated the sex imbalance using haplotype data, containing more critical information than genotypes. Here, we analysed genome-wide data for more than 5000 admixed American individuals to assess the presence, direction and magnitude of sex-biased admixture in the Americas. For this purpose, we applied two haplotype-based approaches, ELAI and NNLS, and we compared them with a genotype-based method, ADMIXTURE. In doing so, besides a general agreement between methods, we unravelled that the post-colonial admixture dynamics show higher complexity than previously described.

Mitogenomes Reveal Two Major Influxes of Papuan Ancestry across Wallacea Following the Last Glacial Maximum and Austronesian Contact.

The tropical archipelago of Wallacea contains thousands of individual islands interspersed between mainland Asia and Near Oceania, and marks the location of a series of ancient oceanic voyages leading to the peopling of Sahul-i.e., the former continent that joined Australia and New Guinea at a time of lowered sea level-by 50,000 years ago. Despite the apparent deep antiquity of human presence in Wallacea, prior population history research in this region has been hampered by patchy archaeological and genetic records and is largely concentrated upon more recent history that follows the arrival of Austronesian seafarers ~3000-4000 years ago (3-4 ka). To shed light on the deeper history of Wallacea and its connections with New Guinea and Australia, we performed phylogeographic analyses on 656 whole mitogenomes from these three regions, including 186 new samples from eight Wallacean islands and three West Papuan populations. Our results point to a surprisingly dynamic population history in Wallacea, marked by two periods of extensive demographic change concentrated around the Last Glacial Maximum ~15 ka and post-Austronesian contact ~3 ka. These changes appear to have greatly diminished genetic signals informative about the original peopling of Sahul, and have important implications for our current understanding of the population history of the region.

More Rule than Exception: Parallel Evidence of Ancient Migrations in Grammars and Genomes of Finno-Ugric Speakers.

To reconstruct aspects of human demographic history, linguistics and genetics complement each other, reciprocally suggesting testable hypotheses on population relationships and interactions. Relying on a linguistic comparative method based on syntactic data, here we focus on the non-straightforward relation of genes and languages among Finno-Ugric (FU) speakers, in comparison to their Indo-European (IE) and Altaic (AL) neighbors. Syntactic analysis, in agreement with the indications of more traditional linguistic levels, supports at least three distinct clusters, corresponding to these three Eurasian families; yet, the outliers of the FU group show linguistic convergence with their geographical neighbors. By analyzing genome-wide data in both ancient and contemporary populations, we uncovered remarkably matching patterns, with north-western FU speakers linguistically and genetically closer in parallel degrees to their IE-speaking neighbors, and eastern FU speakers to AL speakers. Therefore, our analysis indicates that plausible cross-family linguistic interference effects were accompanied, and possibly caused, by recognizable demographic processes. In particular, based on the comparison of modern and ancient genomes, our study identified the Pontic-Caspian steppes as the possible origin of the demographic processes that led to the expansion of FU languages into Europe.

Enfermedad de Chagas: El impacto de las tecnologías de explotación agropecuaria

Diversos fueron los factores en el proceso evolutivo, desde el punto de vista epidemiológico, que tuvieron influencia sobre la enfermedad de Chagas en la provincia de Tucumán (República Argentina). Dentro de estos factores se incluyen las influencias generadas por las tecnologías de punta aplicadas en la explotación agropecuaria, la tala del bosque, en procura del incremento de las áreas de cultivo y en búsqueda de mayor productividad, la desocupación, las migraciones humanas y entre las mismas la de los infectados por la tripanosomiasis chagásica con sus consecuencias: la urbanización de la enfermedad. Las circunstancias naturales y la acción del hombre ubican a la enfermedad. Son cambios dinámicos y a veces muy rápidos, detectables en todo el continente, corresponsables por la aparición de nuevos focos o por la desaparición de otros. En el presente artículo es una revisión de lo acontecido en la provincia de Tucumán (Argentina), respecto a las influencias de las tecnologías de explotación agropecuarias hacia fin del siglo XX y comienzo de este siglo, y como impactaron las mismas sobre aspectos epidemiológicos de la enfermedad de Chagas.

From an epidemiological point of view, various factors in the evolutionary process had an influence on Chagas disease in the province of Tucumán (Argentine Republic). These factors include the influences generated by the technologies applied in the agricultural exploitation, the logging of the forest, in search of the increase of the cultivation areas and in search of greater productivity, unemployment, human migrations and among them the of those infected by chagasic trypanosomiasis with its consequences: urbanization of the disease. The natural circumstances and the action of man locate the disease. They are dynamic and sometimes very rapid changes, detectable throughout the continent, co-responsible for the appearance of new outbreaks or the disappearance of others. This article is a review of what happened in the province of Tucumán (Argentina), regarding the influences of agricultural exploitation technologies towards the end of the 20th century and beginning of this century, and how they impacted on epidemiological aspects of the Chagas disease.

Do ponto de vista epidemiológico, vários fatores no processo evolutivo influenciaram a doença de Chagas na província de Tucumán (República Argentina). Entre esses fatores estão incluídas as influências geradas pelas tecnologias aplicadas na exploração agrícola, na exploração florestal, na busca do aumento das áreas de cultivo e na busca de maior produtividade, desemprego, migrações humanas e entre elas a daqueles infectados por tripanossomíase chagásica com suas consequências: urbanização da doença. As circunstâncias naturais e a ação do homem localizam a doença. São mudanças dinâmicas e, às vezes, muito rápidas, detectáveis em todo o continente, corresponsáveis pelo surgimento de novos surtos ou pelo desaparecimento de outros. Este artigo é uma revisão do que aconteceu na província de Tucumán (Argentina), sobre as influências das tecnologias de exploração agrícola no final do século XX e início deste século e como elas impactaram os aspectos epidemiológicos da doença de Chagas.

Prevalence of Drug Resistance Mutations in Protease, Reverse Transcriptase, and Integrase Genes of North Central Mexico HIV Isolates.

This study set out to determine the frequency of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in treatment-naive subjects of the north central Mexican state of San Luis Potosí. Mexican studies of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations have focused mainly on large metropolitan areas and border towns subjected to intense international migrations. This study set forth to describe the frequency of these mutations in a Mexican region less subjected to such migratory influences and more representative of smaller Mexican cities. Thirty-eight full-length pol sequences spanning the protease, reverse-transcriptase, and integrase-encoding regions were obtained from 42 treatment-naive human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected subjects. Most exhibited subtype B homology, but CRF02_AG was also detected. Evidence of APOBEC3 hypermutation was seen in two samples. Calibrated population analysis revealed a surveillance drug resistance mutation prevalence of 4.9% for protease inhibitors, of 2.7% for nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, of 8.1% for non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, and an overall prevalence of 9.5%. This corresponds to an intermediate level of transmitted drug resistance according to the World Health Organization. The identification of integrase mutations suggests that transmitted drug mutations are being imported, as inhibitors targeting integrase have not been widely used in Mexico. Our results provide a greater understanding of HIV diversity in Mexico and highlight the way internal migrations allow HIV mutations and genetic features to permeate regions less subjected to international migrations. The implications of these findings will become more evident as Mexico hosts increased repatriations of migrants in the coming years.

Adaptation to infectious disease exposure in indigenous Southern African populations.

Genetic analyses can provide information about human evolutionary history that cannot always be gleaned from other sources. We evaluated evidence of selective pressure due to introduced infectious diseases in the genomes of two indigenous southern African San groups-the ‡Khomani who had abundant contact with other people migrating into the region and the more isolated Ju|'hoansi. We used a dual approach to test for increased selection on immune genes compared with the rest of the genome in these groups. First, we calculated summary values of statistics that measure genomic signatures of adaptation to contrast selection signatures in immune genes and all genes. Second, we located regions of the genome with extreme values of three selection statistics and examined these regions for enrichment of immune genes. We found stronger and more abundant signals of selection in immune genes in the ‡Khomani than in the Ju|'hoansi. We confirm this finding within each population to avoid effects of different demographic histories of the two populations. We identified eight immune genes that have potentially been targets of strong selection in the ‡Khomani, whereas in the Ju|'hoansi, no immune genes were found in the genomic regions with the strongest signals of selection. We suggest that the more abundant signatures of selection at immune genes in the ‡Khomani could be explained by their more frequent contact with immigrant groups, which likely led to increased exposure and adaptation to introduced infectious diseases.

The Present and Future Global Burden of the Inherited Disorders of Hemoglobin.

The inherited disorders of hemoglobin represent the most common monogenic diseases. This article provides a brief description of the main inherited disorders of hemoglobin and their classification, and summarizes progress made in the last decade toward a better awareness and recognition of these disorders as a global health problem. Also presented are the main demographic, genetic, and environmental factors that influence the present and future health burden of these disorders. The strengths and limitations of existing estimates and current health policies in high-, low-, and middle-income countries are discussed.

Dating the origin and dispersal of Human Papillomavirus type 16 on the basis of ancestral human migrations.

A major limitation when reconstructing the origin and evolution of HPV-16 is the lack of reliable substitution rate estimates for the viral genes. On the basis of the hypothesis of human HPV-16 co-divergence, we estimated a mean evolutionary rate of 1.47×10(-7) (95% HPD=0.64-2.47×10(-7)) subs/site/year for the viral LCR region. The results of a Bayesian phylogeographical analysis suggest that the currently circulating HPV-16 most probably originated in Africa about 110 thousand years ago (Kya), before giving rise to four known geographical lineages: the Asian/European lineage, which most probably originated in Asia a mean 38 Kya, and the Asian/American and two African lineages, which probably respectively originated about 33 and 27 Kya. These data closely reflect current hypotheses concerning modern human expansion based on studies of mitochondrial DNA phylogeny. The correlation between ancient human migration and the present HPV phylogeny may be explained by the co-existence of modes of transmission other than sexual transmission.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests a Chibchan migration into Colombia / Análisis mitocondrial de ADN sugiere urna migración Chibcha a Colombia / Análise de DNA mitocondrial sugere urna migração Chibchan à Colômbia

The characterization of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) allows the establishment of genetic structures and phylogenetic relationships in human populations, tracing lineages far back in time. We analysed samples of mtDNA from twenty (20) Native American populations (700 individuals) dispersed throughout Colombian territory. Samples were collected during 1989-1993 in the context of the program Expedición Humana ("Human Expedition'') and stored in the Biological Repository of the Institute of Human Genetics (IGH) at the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia). Haplogroups were determined by analysis of RFLPs. Most frequent was haplogroup A, with 338 individuals (48.3%). Haplogroup A is also one of the most frequent haplogroups in Mesoamerica, and we interpret our finding as supporting models that propose Chibchan-speaking groups migrated to northern Colombia from Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. Haplogroup C was found in 199 individuals (28.4%), while less frequent were B and D, with 113 and 41 (16% and 6%) individuals, respectively. The haplogroups of nine (9) individuals (1.3%) could not be determined due to the low quality of the samples of DNA. Although all the sampled populations had genetic structures that fit broadly into the patterns that might be expected for contemporary Central and South American indigenous groups, it was found that haplogroups A and B were more frequent in northern Colombia, while haplogroups C and D were more frequent in southern and south-western Colombia.

La caracterización del DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA) permite el estudio de estructuras genéticas y de relaciones filogenéticas en poblaciones humanas, al rastrear linajes hacia muy atrás en el tiempo. Analizamos muestras de mtDNA de veinte (20) poblaciones nativas americanas (700 individuos) dispersas por toda Colombia. Las muestras se obtuvieron entre 1989-1993 como parte del programa Expedición Humana y se almacenaron en el Banco Biológico del Instituto de Genética Humana (IGH) de la Pontifica Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia). Los haplogrupos se determinaron mediante análisis de RFLPs. El más frecuente fue el haplogrupo A, con 338 individuos (48.3%). El haplogrupo A es también uno de los más frecuentes en Mesoamérica, y nosotros interpretamos nuestro hallazgo como una evidencia en favor de los modelos según los cuales los grupos que hablaban chibcha migraron al norte de Colombia desde Mesoamérica en tiempos prehistóricos. El haplogrupo C se encontró en 199 individuos (28.4%), mientras que los menos frecuentes fueron B y D con 113 y 41 individuos (16 y 6% respectivamente). No se pudieron determinar los haplogrupos de nueve (9) individuos (1.3%) debido a la baja calidad de las muestras de DNA. Aunque todas las poblaciones muestreadas tienen estructuras genéticas que se ajustan en líneas generales a los patrones que se podrían esperar para grupos indígenas contemporáneos de Centro y Suramérica, encontramos que los haplogrupos A y B eran más frecuentes en el norte de Colombia, mientras los haplogrupos C y D eran más frecuentes en el sur y suroccidente del país.

A caracterização de DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA) permite o estabelecimento de estruturas genéticas e relações filogenéticas em populações humanas, rastreando linhagens ao longo do tempo. Nós analisamos amostras de mtDNA de vinte (20) populações Nativas Americanas (700 individuos) distribuidas ao longo do territòrio colombiano. Amostras foram coletadas durante 1989-1993 dentro do contexto do programa Expedido Humana ("Expedición Humana") e armazenados no Repositório Biológico do Instituto de Genética Humana (IGH) da Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (Bogotá, Colombia). Haplogrupos foram determinados por análise do polimorfismo no comprimento de fragmentos de restrição (RFLPs). O haplogrupo mais frequente foi o haplogrupo A, com 338 individuos (48,3%). Esse haplogrupo também é um dos mais frequentes em Mesoamérica, e interpretamos nossos resultados como um modelo de suporte que propóe que grupos que falam Chibchan migraram ao Norte de Colombia a partir da Mesoamérica ainda em tempos pré-históricos. Halogrupo C foi encontrado em 199 individuos (28,4%), enquanto que os menos frequentes foram B e D, com 113 e 41 (16% e 6%) individuos, respectivamente. Os haplogrupos de nove (9) individuos (1,3%) nào puderam ser determinados devido à baixa qualidade das amostras de DNA. Embora todas as populações amostradas tinham estruturas genéticas que cabem amplamente nos padróes esperados para os grupos indigenas contemporáneos da América Central e do Sul, foi observado que os haplogrupos A e B foram mais frequente no Norte da Colombia, enquanto que os haplogrupos C e D foram mais frequentes no Sul e Sudoeste da Colombia.

A migration-driven model for the historical spread of leprosy in medieval Eastern and Central Europe.

Leprosy was rare in Europe during the Roman period, yet its prevalence increased dramatically in medieval times. We examined human remains, with paleopathological lesions indicative of leprosy, dated to the 6th-11th century AD, from Central and Eastern Europe and Byzantine Anatolia. Analysis of ancient DNA and bacterial cell wall lipid biomarkers revealed Mycobacterium leprae in skeletal remains from 6th-8th century Northern Italy, 7th-11th century Hungary, 8th-9th century Austria, the Slavic Greater Moravian Empire of the 9th-10th century and 8th-10th century Byzantine samples from Northern Anatolia. These data were analyzed alongside findings published by others. M. leprae is an obligate human pathogen that has undergone an evolutionary bottleneck followed by clonal expansion. Therefore M. leprae genotypes and sub-genotypes give information about the human populations they have infected and their migration. Although data are limited, genotyping demonstrates that historical M. leprae from Byzantine Anatolia, Eastern and Central Europe resembles modern strains in Asia Minor rather than the recently characterized historical strains from North West Europe. The westward migration of peoples from Central Asia in the first millennium may have introduced different M. leprae strains into medieval Europe and certainly would have facilitated the spread of any existing leprosy. The subsequent decline of M. leprae in Europe may be due to increased host resistance. However, molecular evidence of historical leprosy and tuberculosis co-infections suggests that death from tuberculosis in leprosy patients was also a factor.

Insights into the origin of rare haplogroup C3* Y chromosomes in South America from high-density autosomal SNP genotyping.

The colonization of Americas is thought to have occurred 15-20 thousand years ago (Kya), with little or no subsequent migration into South America until the European expansions beginning 0.5 Kya. Recently, however, haplogroup C3* Y chromosomes were discovered in two nearby Native American populations from Ecuador. Since this haplogroup is otherwise nearly absent from the Americas but is common in East Asia, and an archaeological link between Ecuador and Japan is known from 6 Kya, an additional migration 6 Kya was suggested. Here, we have generated high-density autosomal SNP genotypes from the Ecuadorian populations and compared them with genotypes from East Asia and elsewhere to evaluate three hypotheses: a recent migration from Japan, a single pulse of migration from Japan 6 Kya, and no migration after the First Americans. First, using forward-time simulations and an appropriate demographic model, we investigated our power to detect both ancient and recent gene flow at different levels. Second, we analyzed 207,321 single nucleotide polymorphisms from 16 Ecuadorian individuals, comparing them with populations from the HGDP panel using descriptive and formal tests for admixture. Our simulations revealed good power to detect recent admixture, and that ≥ 5% admixture 6 Kya ago could be detected. However, in the experimental data we saw no evidence of gene flow from Japan to Ecuador. In summary, we can exclude recent migration and probably admixture 6 Kya as the source of the C3* Y chromosomes in Ecuador, and thus suggest that they represent a rare founding lineage lost by drift elsewhere.

Origen y composición genética de la población cubana / Origin and genetic composition of the Cuban population

Se hace una revisión a partir de la aparición del Homo sapiens en el continente africano y el comienzo de las migraciones hacia diferentes regiones geográficas, que condujeron después a la llegada del hombre primitivo a América y su desplazamiento a través de América del Norte hasta llegar a Sudamérica, y desde aquí a las islas del Caribe. Se comenta cómo influyó la llegada de los españoles sobre las poblaciones indígenas caribeñas y su contribución a la introducción de negros provenientes de las colonias africanas en esta región del mundo. Se analizan diversos trabajos científicos realizados fundamentalmente en Cuba, que demuestran, mediante diferentes marcadores bioquímicos y moleculares, la gran mezcla étnica de la población cubana, constituida sobre todo por blancos caucasoides, negros africanos y mulatos resultantes de la mezcla de ambas poblaciones y, en menor proporción y sin significación evidente, de otras poblaciones como son la china y la indoamericana

A literature review was made on the emergence of Homo sapiens in the African continent and the beginning of migration towards different geographic regions; this led to the arrival of the primitive man to the America and his movement through the North America to South America, and from this place to the Caribbean Islands. The impact of the arrival of Spaniards on the Caribbean native populations and their contribution to the introduction of Black people from the Arican colonies located in this region of the world were also commented on. Likewise, several scientific works mainly carried out in Cuba were analyzed, since they prove the great ethnic admixture of the Cuban population basically made up of Caucasians, African blacks and mulattos; being the latter the result of the mixture of the first two population groups and to a lesser extent of other populations like Chinese and IndoAmerican, but without evident significance

Origen y composición genética de la población cubana / Origin and genetic composition of the Cuban population

Se hace una revisión a partir de la aparición del Homo sapiens en el continente africano y el comienzo de las migraciones hacia diferentes regiones geográficas, que condujeron después a la llegada del hombre primitivo a América y su desplazamiento a través de América del Norte hasta llegar a Sudamérica, y desde aquí a las islas del Caribe. Se comenta cómo influyó la llegada de los españoles sobre las poblaciones indígenas caribeñas y su contribución a la introducción de negros provenientes de las colonias africanas en esta región del mundo. Se analizan diversos trabajos científicos realizados fundamentalmente en Cuba, que demuestran, mediante diferentes marcadores bioquímicos y moleculares, la gran mezcla étnica de la población cubana, constituida sobre todo por blancos caucasoides, negros africanos y mulatos resultantes de la mezcla de ambas poblaciones y, en menor proporción y sin significación evidente, de otras poblaciones como son la china y la indoamericana(AU)

A literature review was made on the emergence of Homo sapiens in the African continent and the beginning of migration towards different geographic regions; this led to the arrival of the primitive man to the America and his movement through the North America to South America, and from this place to the Caribbean Islands. The impact of the arrival of Spaniards on the Caribbean native populations and their contribution to the introduction of Black people from the Arican colonies located in this region of the world were also commented on. Likewise, several scientific works mainly carried out in Cuba were analyzed, since they prove the great ethnic admixture of the Cuban population basically made up of Caucasians, African blacks and mulattos; being the latter the result of the mixture of the first two population groups and to a lesser extent of other populations like Chinese and IndoAmerican, but without evident significance(AU)