The executioner's shadow: Coerced sterilization and the creation of "Latin" eugenics in Chile.

Scholars such as Nancy Leys Stepan, Alexandra Minna Stern, Marius Turda and Aaron Gillette have all argued that the rejection of coerced sterilization was a defining feature of "Latin" eugenic theory and practice. These studies highlight the influence of neo-Lamarckism in this development not only in Latin America but also in parts of Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. This article builds upon this historiographical framework to examine an often-neglected site of Latin American eugenic knowledge production: Chile. By focusing on Chilean eugenicists' understandings of environment and coerced sterilization, this article argues that there was no uniquely Latin objection to the practice initially. In fact, Chilean eugenicists echoed concerns of eugenicists from a variety of locations, both "mainstream" and Latin, who felt that sterilization was not the most effective way to ensure the eugenic improvement of national populations. Instead, the article contends that it was not until the implementation of the 1933 German racial purity laws, which included coerced sterilization legislation, that Chilean eugenicists began to define their objections to the practice as explicitly Latin. Using a variety of medical texts which appeared in popular periodicals as well as professional journals, this article reveals the complexity of eugenic thought and practice in Chile in the early twentieth century.

In the name of science: the conceptual and ideological background of Charles Richet's eugenics / Em nome da ciência: o contexto conceitual e ideológico da eugenia de Charles Richet

Abstract The French physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Charles Richet was the author of an impressive quantity of writings, including novels and poetry. He was an out-and-out eugenicist, convinced that "intentional, conscious, scientific, and methodical" selection could achieve "any result, provided we have enough patience." He believed that the quantitative and qualitative growth of the population was of vital importance for France. In La sélection humaine (1919) and other writings, he dreamt of conscious selection to create "intellectual élites." This process would be crowned by the production of a "higher human nature, a real surhumanité." A staunch believer in the inheritance of acquired characteristics, Richet combined Darwinism and Lamarckism.

Resumo O fisiologista e vencedor do prêmio Nobel Charles Richet foi autor de numerosos escritos, incluindo romances e poesia. Eugenicista meticuloso, estava convencido de que uma seleção "intencional, conscienciosa, científica e metodológica" podeira atingir "qualquer resultado, contanto que tivéssemos paciência". Ele acreditava que o crescimento quantitativo e qualitativo da população tinha importância vital para a França. Em La sélection humaine (1919) e em outros escritos, ele sonhava com uma seleção consciente criando "elites intelectuais". Esse processo culminaria com a produção de uma "natureza humana superior, uma super-humanidade". Crente aguerrido da herança de caracteres hereditários, Richet combinou darwinismo e lamarckismo.

O neolamarckismo de Edward Drinker Cope e a ideia de progresso biológico no processo evolutivo / The neo-Lamarckism of Edward Drinker Cope and the idea of biological progress in the evolutionary process

A teoria neolamarckista de Edward Cope operava com um mecanismo alternativo à seleção natural. Acréscimos ou decréscimos dos estágios ontogênicos produziriam características que poderiam ser geradas e integradas ao organismo por meio da herança de caracteres adquiridos. Incrementando, ou não, a complexidade corporal, tal mecanismo aumentava a capacidade adaptativa. Isso poderia ser interpretado como progresso biológico de maneira semelhante à interpretação feita por defensores da teoria sintética evolutiva. Mas, diferentemente destes últimos, o neolamarckismo relegava à seleção natural papel secundário. Este estudo esclarece o posicionamento de Cope em relação ao fenômeno do progresso biológico, assim como seu enfoque fortemente adaptacionista, propondo que essa tenha sido uma contribuição indireta à articulação da nova síntese evolutiva.

Edward Cope's neo-Lamarckist theory operated with an alternative mechanism to natural selection. For him, increases or decreases of the ontogenic stages produce characteristics that could be generated and integrated into the organism through the inheritance of acquired characters. Increasing body complexity, or not, this mechanism increased adaptive capacity. This could be interpreted as biological progress in a manner similar to the interpretation made by proponents of synthetic evolutionary theory. But unlike the latter, neo-Lamarkism relegated natural selection to a secondary role. This study aims to clarify the position of Cope in relation to the phenomenon of biological progress, as well as his strongly adaptational approach, proposing that this has been an indirect contribution to the articulation of the new evolutionary synthesis.

Defining and characterizing the concept of Internet Meme / Definición y caracterización del concepto de Meme de Internet

The research aims to create a formal definition of "Internet Meme" (IM) that can be used to characterize and study IMs in academic contexts such as social, communication sciences and humanities. Different perspectives of the term meme were critically analysed and contrasted, creating a contemporary concept that synthesizes different meme theorists' visions about the term. Two different kinds of meme were found in the contemporary definitions, the meme-gene, and the meme-virus. The meme-virus definition and characteristics were merged with definitions of IM taken from the Internet in the light of communication theories, in order to develop a formal characterization of the concept. Lastly, the use for characterization and research of the developed concept is exemplified by analysing two internet memes.

La presente investigación tiene como propósito crear una definición formal de "Meme de Internet" (IM) que pueda ser usada para caracterizar y estudiar este tipo de memes en contextos académicos como las ciencias sociales, de la comunicación y las humanidades. Para esto, diferentes perspectivas y usos del término meme son analizadas y contrastadas, creando así un concepto actual que sintetiza la visión de los diferentes teóricos de los memes. En esta fase se encontraron dos tipos diferentes de definiciones contemporáneas de meme, el meme-gen y el meme-virus. La definición de meme-virus fue usada y combinada con definiciones de IM tomadas del Internet usando teorías de la comunicación, esto con el propósito de desarrollar una definición formal de dicho concepto. Finalmente, el concepto construido de IM es ejemplificado en su uso para caracterización e investigación en el campo de lo IM, analizando dos memes de Internet.

Omissions in the synthetic theory of evolution

The Synthetic Theory of Evolution is the most unifying theory of life science. This theory has dominated scientific thought in explaining the mechanisms involved in speciation. However, there are some omissions that have delayed the understanding of some aspects of the mechanisms of organic evolution, principally: 1) the bridge between somatic and germinal cells, especially in some phylum of invertebrates and vertebrates; 2) horizontal genetic transferences and the importance of viruses in host adaptation and evolution; 3) the role of non-coding DNA and non-transcriptional genes; 4) homeotic evolution and the limitations of gradual evolution; and 5) excessive emphasis on extrinsic barriers to animal speciation. This paper reviews each of these topics in an effort to contribute to a better comprehension of organic evolution. Molecular findings suggest the need for a new evolutionary synthesis.

El origen de la especies y su relacióncon el inicio de la actual teoría de la hereniia / The Origin of Species and its Relation with the Birth of Present Genetic Theory

En la primera parte se mostrarán algunos elementos históricos relacionados con la "Philosophie Zoologique" de Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, obra fundamental de la biología moderna merecedora de una mención especial en su aniversario número 200. Esta obra contiene algunos conceptos impor-tantes para "The Origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life" el trabajo fundamental de Charles Darwin. Posteriormente se revisará la idea general de la pangénesis y sus diferentes contradicciones en la explicación de la variabilidad necesaria para la acción de la selección natural que culminarían con el nacimiento de la genética. Es importante mostrar la posición particular de los experimentos mendelianos en relación con el paradigma evo-lutivo causado por el origen de las especies.

In the first part I present some historical elements related to the "Philosophie Zoologique" by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, a fundamental work of modern biology. This work deserves a special mention in its 200th anniversary, since it contains some important concepts for "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of favored races in the struggle for life" the principal work of Charles Darwin. Subsequently we review the pangenesis and various contradictions in the explanation of the variability required for the action of natural selection that culminate with the birth of genetics. In this paper is important show the particular position of Mendelian experiments in relation with the evolutionary paradigm caused by the origin of species.

Soft inheritance: challenging the modern synthesis: [review]

This paper presents some of the recent challenges to the Modern Synthesis of evolutionary theory, which has dominated evolutionary thinking for the last sixty years. The focus of the paper is the challenge of soft inheritance - the idea that variations that arise during development can be inherited. There is ample evidence showing that phenotypic variations that are independent of variations in DNA sequence, and targeted DNA changes that are guided by epigenetic control systems, are important sources of hereditary variation, and hence can contribute to evolutionary changes. Furthermore, under certain conditions, the mechanisms underlying epigenetic inheritance can also lead to saltational changes that reorganize the epigenome. These discoveries are clearly incompatible with the tenets of the Modern Synthesis, which denied any significant role for Lamarckian and saltational processes. In view of the data that support soft inheritance, as well as other challenges to the Modern Synthesis, it is concluded that that synthesis no longer offers a satisfactory theoretical framework for evolutionary biology.