Conservation gaps and priorities in the Tropical Andes biodiversity hotspot: Implications for the expansion of protected areas.

The Tropical Andes (TA) contain some of the most important and threatened areas for biodiversity conservation on earth. Despite the proportion of protected areas (PAs) that currently cover the TA, it is unknown if these areas are adequately protecting the biodiversity throughout the region and where the expansion of PAs is most needed to preserve biodiversity in the future. Here, we examine the conservation status of 1743 vertebrate species endemic to the TA (including mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles), for which conservation actions should be prioritized within the region itself. Using species' geographical range maps, refined by their known elevational and habitat requirements, we carry out a gap analysis to examine to what degree endemic vertebrate species in the TA are represented by PAs. Then, using the irreplaceability-vulnerability framework, we localize first and second priority areas for conservation action, where important ecological features are subjected to severe anthropogenic disturbance. Our results show that 72% of all species and 90% of all threatened species are insufficiently covered by PAs. Furthermore, 73% of the first priority sites and 84% of the second priority sites are not covered by current PAs. These areas are predominantly located in the surroundings of major population centers in Ecuador and Colombia. To prevent species from extinction in the near future, actions to conserve their remaining habitat in prioritized areas are urgently required.

Selecting cost-effective areas for restoration of ecosystem services.

Selection of areas for restoration should be based on cost-effectiveness analysis to attain the maximum benefit with a limited budget and overcome the traditional ad hoc allocation of funds for restoration projects. Restoration projects need to be planned on the basis of ecological knowledge and economic and social constraints. We devised a novel approach for selecting cost-effective areas for restoration on the basis of biodiversity and potential provision of 3 ecosystem services: carbon storage, water depuration, and coastal protection. We used Marxan, a spatial prioritization tool, to balance the provision of ecosystem services against the cost of restoration. We tested this approach in a mangrove ecosystem in the Caribbean. Our approach efficiently selected restoration areas that at low cost were compatible with biodiversity targets and that maximized the provision of one or more ecosystem services. Choosing areas for restoration of mangroves on the basis carbon storage potential, largely guaranteed the restoration of biodiversity and other ecosystem services.

Maximizing species conservation in continental Ecuador: a case of systematic conservation planning for biodiverse regions.

Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide, but also a low representation of species within its protected areas. Here, we applied systematic conservation planning to identify potential areas for conservation in continental Ecuador, with the aim of increasing the representation of terrestrial species diversity in the protected area network. We selected 809 terrestrial species (amphibians, birds, mammals, and plants), for which distributions were estimated via species distribution models (SDMs), using Maxent. For each species we established conservation goals based on conservation priorities, and estimated new potential protected areas using Marxan conservation planning software. For each selected area, we determined their conservation priority and feasibility of establishment, two important aspects in the decision-making processes. We found that according to our conservation goals, the current protected area network contains large conservation gaps. Potential areas for conservation almost double the surface area of currently protected areas. Most of the newly proposed areas are located in the Coast, a region with large conservation gaps and irreversible changes in land use. The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions, which encompass more undisturbed habitats, and already harbor most of the current reserves. Our study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador's biodiversity, by combining SDMs, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas. This approach is useful for complementing protected area networks in countries with great biodiversity, insufficient biological information, and limited resources for conservation.