Testing alleged mediumistic writing: An experimental controlled study.

CONTEXT: Mediumship is understood as a kind of spiritual experience in which a person (i.e., a medium) claims to be in communication with, or under the control of, spiritual beings. In the last decades there has been a resurgence of studies on psychological, psychiatric and neuroscientific aspects of mediumship, as well as studies assessing the claim that mediums can obtain anomalous information from deceased persons. OBJECTIVE: To assess the evidence for anomalous information reception about deceased people in texts produced through alleged mediumistic writing (psychographic letters) under strictly controlled experimental conditions. METHOD: Eight mediums and ninety-four sitters participated in the study. Eighteen mediumistic writing sessions were carried out using blind proxy sitters. Later, each sitter received the target mediumistic letter and five control letters paired by gender and age. Sitters blindly scored the accuracy of the six letters both with a global score and for each of the objectively verifiable items of information presented on the letters. Scores from target and control letters were compared. RESULTS: There was no difference in global evaluation and specific fit scores between control and target letters. The mediums involved in the research were not able to show evidence for providing anomalous information about deceased people when under our strict controlled conditions. We argue for establishing a reasonable compromise between ecological validity and controlled condition.

O cérebro produz a mente? Um levantamento da opinião de psiquiatras / Does the brain produce the mind? A survey of psychiatrists’ opinions

Psychiatrists’ views on the mind-brain relationship (MBR) have marked clinical and research implications, but there is a lack of studies on this topic. Objectives: To evaluate psychiatrists’ opinions on the MBR, and whether they are amenable to change or not. Methods: We conducted a survey of psychiatrists’ views on the MBR just before and after a debate on the MBR at the Brazilian Congress of Psychiatry in 2014. Results: Initially, from more than 600 participants, 53% endorsed the view that “the mind (your “I”) is a product of brain activity”, while 47% disagreed. Moreover, 72% contested the view that “the universe is composed only of matter”. After the debate, 30% changed from a materialist to a non-materialist view of mind, while 17% changed in the opposite way. Discussion: Psychiatrists are interested in debates on the MBR, do not hold a monolithic view on the subject and their positions are open to reflection and change, suggesting the need for more in-depth studies and rigorous but open-minded debates on the subject...

Psychiatrists’ views on the mind-brain relationship (MBR) have marked clinical and research implications, but there is a lack of studies on this topic. Objectives: To evaluate psychiatrists’ opinions on the MBR, and whether they are amenable to change or not. Methods: We conducted a survey of psychiatrists’ views on the MBR just before and after a debate on the MBR at the Brazilian Congress of Psychiatry in 2014. Results: Initially, from more than 600 participants, 53% endorsed the view that “the mind (your “I”) is a product of brain activity”, while 47% disagreed. Moreover, 72% contested the view that “the universe is composed only of matter”. After the debate, 30% changed from a materialist to a non-materialist view of mind, while 17% changed in the opposite way. Discussion: Psychiatrists are interested in debates on the MBR, do not hold a monolithic view on the subject and their positions are open to reflection and change, suggesting the need for more in-depth studies and rigorous but open-minded debates on the subject...

Investigating the fit and accuracy of alleged mediumistic writing: a case study of Chico Xavier's letters.

CONTEXT: The study of mediumship is important because if mediumistic abilities were real, they would provide empirical support for non-reductionist theories of the mind, thus having major implications to our understanding of the mind-brain relationship. This study investigated the alleged mediumship of Chico Xavier, a very prolific and influential "medium" in Brazil. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the accuracy of the information conveyed in Xavier's "psychographed" letters (i.e., letters allegedly authored by a deceased personality) and to explore the possible explanations for it. METHOD: After a systematic search for Xavier's psychographed letters, we selected one set of 13 letters allegedly written by a same spiritual author (J.P.). The letters were initially screened for the identification of items of information that were objectively verifiable. The accuracy of the information conveyed by these items and the estimated likelihood of the Xavier's access to the information via ordinary means were rated using Fit and Leak scales based on documents and interviews carried out with the sister and friends of J.P. RESULTS: We identified 99 items of verifiable information conveyed in these 13 letters; 98% of these items were rated as "Clear and Precise Fit" and no item was rated as "no Fit." We concluded that ordinary explanations for accuracy of the information (i.e., fraud, chance, information leakage, and cold reading) were only remotely plausible. These results seem to provide empirical support for non-reductionist theories of consciousness.

O eterno retorno do materialismo: padrões recorrentes de explicações materialistas dos fenômenos mentais / Materialism's eternal return: recurrent patterns of materialistic explanations of mental phenomena

Com o desenvolvimento, na segunda metade do século XX, das novas tecnologias de neuroimagem para estudar o funcionamento do cérebro humano, uma nova onda de entusiasmo com as explicações materialistas dos fenômenos mentais invadiu os departamentos de filosofia e psicologia em todo o mundo. O auge de tudo isso foi a assim chamada "década do cérebro" nos anos 1990. Entretanto, um exame mais detalhado dos argumentos apresentados por esses novos materialistas revela padrões recorrentes de analogias e metáforas, além de uma velha estratégia retórica de apelar para um futuro distante, no qual todos os problemas serão resolvidos. Este trabalho pretende mostrar que essas novas formas de materialismo repetem estratégias discursivas de versões mais arcaicas do pensamento materialista, sobretudo do materialismo francês do século XVIII e do materialismo alemão do século XIX. Finalmente, uma interpretação para o eterno retorno do materialismo será oferecida.

Since the new developments of neurotechnologies for studying the brain functioning in the second half of twentieth century, a new wave of enthusiasm for materialistic explanations of mental phenomena has invaded philosophy and psychology departments worldwide. The culmination of all this was the so-called "decade of brain" in the 1990s. However, a closer examination of the arguments presented by some of these new materialists reveals recurrent patterns of analogies and metaphors, besides an old rhetorical strategy of appealing to a distant future, in which all the problems will be solved. This paper intends to show that these new forms of materialism repeat discursive strategies of older versions of materialism, especially the French materialism of the 18th century and the German materialism of the 19th century. Finally, an interpretation for materialism's eternal return will be offered.

Pesquisa em mediunidade e relação mente-cérebro: revisão das evidências / Scientific research on mediumship and mind-brain relationship: reviewing the evidence

CONTEXTO: Mediunidade, uma experiência humana disseminada pelas diversas sociedades ao longo da história, pode ser definida como uma experiência em que um indivíduo (chamado de médium) alega estar em comunicação com, ou sob influência de, uma personalidade falecida ou outro ser não material. Desde o século 19 há uma substancial mas negligenciada tradição de investigações científicas sobre mediunidade e suas implicações para a natureza da mente. OBJETIVO: Discutir a importância histórica e atual da mediunidade para o problema mente-cérebro, focando em estudos que investigam as origens e as fontes das comunicações mediúnicas. MÉTODOS: O artigo inicia-se com uma breve discussão filosófica sobre o que seria evidência para identidade pessoal e sua persistência além do cérebro, então apresenta e analisa as evidências proporcionadas por estudos em mediunidade, incluindo uma análise mais detalhada de dois médiuns muito produtivos: Leonora Piper e Chico Xavier. RESULTADOS: Estudos bem controlados, antigos e recentes, sugerem que médiuns podem exibir habilidades e conhecimentos compatíveis com personalidades falecidas e improváveis de terem sido obtidos por meios ordinários. CONCLUSÕES: O uso de métodos de pesquisa contemporâneos em experiências mediúnicas pode proporcionar a necessária ampliação e diversificação da base empírica para o avanço de nosso entendimento do problema mente-cérebro.

BACKGROUND: Mediumship, an experience widespread throughout human history, can be defined as an experience in which an individual (the so-called medium) purports to be in communication with, or under the control of, a deceased personality or other non-material being. Since the 19th Century there is a substantial, but neglected tradition of scientific research about mediumship and its implications for the nature of mind. OBJECTIVE: To discuss the historical and current importance of mediumship to the mind-brain problem, focusing on studies investigating the origins, the sources of mediumistic communications. METHODS: This paper starts discussing what would be evidence for personal identity and its persistence beyond the brain, then empirical evidence provided by studies on mediumship are presented and analyzed, including a more detailed analysis of two very productive mediums: Mrs. Leonora Piper and Chico Xavier. RESULTS: Old and recent well controlled studies suggest that mediums can exhibit skills and knowledge unlikely to have been acquired by ordinary means and compatible with deceased personalities. DISCUSSION: Applying contemporary research methods to mediumistic experiences may provide a badly needed broadening and diversification of the empirical basis needed to advance our understanding of the mind-body problem.

The possibility of physicalism / A possibilidade do fisicalismo

Modern science has undermined belief in countless imaginary causalities. What is the nature of the relation between mind and brain? Philosophers have debated the issue for millennia, but it is only in the last twenty years that empirical evidence has begun to uncover some of the secrets of this ancient riddle. This lecture explores the possiblity that advances in neuroscience will undermine and subvert our intuitive, mentalist understanding of the mind-body relationship. Recent findings in neuroscience seem to support the notions that (i) mental events are a subclass of neurophysiological events, and (ii) they are devoid of causal efficacy upon the workings of the brain. If physicalism is true then the belief in the causal potency of conscious thoughts and free will are bound to join company with countless other imaginary causalities exploded by the progress of science.

A ciência moderna tem minado a crença em inúmeras causalidades imaginárias. Qual é a natureza da relação entre mente e cérebro? Filósofos têm debatido a questão por milênios, mas apenas nos últimos 20 anos a evidência empírica começou a descobrir alguns dos segredos deste antigo enigma. Esta palestra explora a possibilidade de que os avanços na neurociência vão corroer e subverter a nossa compreensão intuitiva e mentalista da relação mente-corpo. Descobertas recentes da neurociência parecem apoiar as noções de que (i) os eventos mentais são uma subclasse de eventos neurofisiológicos, e (ii) que são desprovidos de eficácia causal sobre o funcionamento do cérebro. Se o fisicalismo é verdade, então as crenças na potência causal de pensamentos conscientes e no livre arbítrio estão destinadas a fazer companhia a inúmeras outras causalidades imaginárias que foram destruídas pelo progresso da ciência.

The possibility of physicalism.

Modern science has undermined belief in countless imaginary causalities. What is the nature of the relation between mind and brain? Philosophers have debated the issue for millennia, but it is only in the last twenty years that empirical evidence has begun to uncover some of the secrets of this ancient riddle. This lecture explores the possiblity that advances in neuroscience will undermine and subvert our intuitive, mentalist understanding of the mind-body relationship. Recent findings in neuroscience seem to support the notions that (i) mental events are a subclass of neurophysiological events, and (ii) they are devoid of causal efficacy upon the workings of the brain. If physicalism is true then the belief in the causal potency of conscious thoughts and free will are bound to join company with countless other imaginary causalities exploded by the progress of science.

A ciência moderna tem minado a crença em inúmeras causalidades imaginárias. Qual é a natureza da relação entre mente e cérebro? Filósofos têm debatido a questão por milênios, mas apenas nos últimos 20 anos a evidência empírica começou a descobrir alguns dos segredos deste antigo enigma. Esta palestra explora a possibilidade de que os avanços na neurociência vão corroer e subverter a nossa compreensão intuitiva e mentalista da relação mente-corpo. Descobertas recentes da neurociência parecem apoiar as noções de que (i) os eventos mentais são uma subclasse de eventos neurofisiológicos, e (ii) que são desprovidos de eficácia causal sobre o funcionamento do cérebro. Se o fisicalismo é verdade, então as crenças na potência causal de pensamentos conscientes e no livre arbítrio estão destinadas a fazer companhia a inúmeras outras causalidades imaginárias que foram destruídas pelo progresso da ciência.

Alma, corpo e a antiga civilização grega: as primeiras observações do funcionamento cerebral e das atividades mentais / Soul, body and the ancient greek civilization: the first observations of brain functioning and mental activities

Muitos dos conceitos existentes na neurociência moderna possuem suas origens nas especulações elaboradas pelos antigos filósofos e médicos gregos. Questões centrais sobre a fonte dos pensamentos humanos, o mecanismo da atividade cognitiva, e a natureza das emoções, percepção e movimento voluntário, por exemplo, foram levantadas pelos pensadores gregos. É a partir desta civilização que surgem as observações mais sistemáticas sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do corpo, da mente e a relação entre estas duas entidades. Assim, o presente trabalho pretende observar as principais tentativas iniciais gregas em vincular estruturas do corpo (tais como o cérebro ou o coração) e atividades mentais, ao longo das diversas especulações gregas sobre a natureza, a filosofia, a psicologia e a medicina.

Many of the existing concepts in modern neuroscience have their origins in the speculations made by ancient Greek philosophers and physicians. Core questions about the source of human thought, the mechanism of cognitive activity as well as the nature of emotions, perceptions and voluntary movements, for example, were raised by Greek thinkers. It is from this civilization that arise more systematic observations on the structure and functioning of body, mind and relationship between these two entities. The present paper intends to adhere to the first Greek attempts to link structures of the body (such as the brain or the heart) and mental activities regarding various Greek speculations about the nature, philosophy, psychology and medicine.

Alma, corpo e a antiga civilização grega: as primeiras observações do funcionamento cerebral e das atividades mentais / Soul, body and the ancient greek civilization: the first observations of brain functioning and mental activities

Muitos dos conceitos existentes na neurociência moderna possuem suas origens nas especulações elaboradas pelos antigos filósofos e médicos gregos. Questões centrais sobre a fonte dos pensamentos humanos, o mecanismo da atividade cognitiva, e a natureza das emoções, percepção e movimento voluntário, por exemplo, foram levantadas pelos pensadores gregos. É a partir desta civilização que surgem as observações mais sistemáticas sobre a estrutura e o funcionamento do corpo, da mente e a relação entre estas duas entidades. Assim, o presente trabalho pretende observar as principais tentativas iniciais gregas em vincular estruturas do corpo (tais como o cérebro ou o coração) e atividades mentais, ao longo das diversas especulações gregas sobre a natureza, a filosofia, a psicologia e a medicina.(AU)

Many of the existing concepts in modern neuroscience have their origins in the speculations made by ancient Greek philosophers and physicians. Core questions about the source of human thought, the mechanism of cognitive activity as well as the nature of emotions, perceptions and voluntary movements, for example, were raised by Greek thinkers. It is from this civilization that arise more systematic observations on the structure and functioning of body, mind and relationship between these two entities. The present paper intends to adhere to the first Greek attempts to link structures of the body (such as the brain or the heart) and mental activities regarding various Greek speculations about the nature, philosophy, psychology and medicine.(AU)

A relação mente-cérebro na metapsicologia freudiana / The mind-brain relation in freudian metapsychology

Este artigo tem como objetivo discutir a concepção freudiana sobre a relação mente-cérebro. Argumentaremos que esta relação tem que ser pensada em duas etapas na teoria freudiana. Por um lado, há que se pensar a relação entre a mente inconsciente e o cerebral e, por outro, a relação entre a mente inconsciente e a consciência. A segunda dessas relações permanece bem mais obscura do que a primeira, o que nos permite dizer que o grande enigma, em Freud, é a consciência(AU)

This paper discuss the Freudian views on the mind-brain relation. We shall argue that, in Freudian theory, this relation must be considered in two stages: first, the relation between the brain and the unconscious mind, and then the relation between the unconscious mind and the consciousness. The latter remains far more obscure than the former, which allow us to conclude that, for Freud, the ultimate enigma is the consciousness(AU)

¿Que soy yo y (cuales) las ilusiones de mi conciencia? / What am I and (which are) the illusions of my self consciousness?

El presente trabajo explora, a partir de las ideas de Daniel Dennett y Douglas Hofstadter, qué es el Yo, qué es la conciencia y qué vínculo mantienen ambos con el cerebro. El punto central es cuáles son las ilusiones del Yo y de la conciencia, cómo llegan a producirse y cuáles son los ejes para comprender nuestra habitual resistencia a desarmarlas. El Yo es considerado un mito poderoso aunque, a la vez, desde una perspectiva funcionalista, una herramienta indispensable en nuestra vida cotidiana y en nuestras explicaciones acerca de nosotros mismos y los otros.

Departing from Daniel Dennett's and Douglas Hofstadter's ideas, the present paper explores what the self and consciousness are and puts forward a possible explanation of their relationship with the brain. The paper deconstructs the illusions of my self and those of my consciousness, how they are produced and which the key elements to understand our reluctance to see ourselves as brains are. The self is considered a powerful myth but, at the same time, from a functionalist perspective, also an indispensable device in our daily life and in our explanations about others and about ourselves.

A gênese do conceito freudiano de inconsciente / The genesis of the Freudian concept of the unconscious

Durante toda sua obra, Freud concebe os processos psíquicos como derivados da atividade do cérebro. Aqui é proposta uma reconstituição dos passos inferenciais (constituindo uma seqüência lógica e não cronológica), possibilitados por essa concepção psiconeural, que levaram (sob a influência dos fatos clínicos) ao conceito psicanalítico de inconsciente. Os processos neurofisiológicos subjacentes ao psíquico devem possuir complexidade suficiente para justificar as propriedades psíquicas conhecidas pela consciência. Para Freud, a consciência é uma espécie de percepção interna de processos psíquicos. Como a consciência não é inerente a esses processos, torna-se natural imaginar que eles possam também ocorrer sem serem percebidos (processos pré-conscientes). O conceito de inconsciente propriamente dito também se mostra tributário de sua concepção psiconeural.

Along all his works Freud conceives of psychical processes as derived from the activity of the brain. We offer here a reconstruction of the inferential steps (making up a logical and not a chronological sequence), made possible by this psychoneural conception, that have led (under the influence of clinical facts) to the psychoanalytical concept of the unconscious. Neurophysiological processes underlying psychical reality must possess enough complexity to justify the psychical properties known by consciousness. According to Freud, consciousness is a sort of internal perception of psychical processes. As consciousness is not inherent to these processes, it is natural to imagine that they may also occur without being perceived (preconscious processes). The concept of the unconscious properly said also appears as dependent on this psychoneural conception.

Networks in Cognitive Systems and Biomedicine: Cerebral Processes, Models and Mathematical Tools Design

Convergence of clinical, empirical, methodological and theoretical approaches aimed at understanding the relation between brain function and cognition, is by now standard in most if not all academic programs in the area of Cognitive Science. This confederation of disciplines is one of the liveliest domains of inquiry and discussion into some of the most fundamental -and historically resilient- questions human beings have posed themselves. The contributions gathered in this special issue of Biological Research, directly inspired by the ongoing work at the Instituto de Sistemas Complejos de Valparaiso and the December 2006 CONICYT-INSERM-SFI workshop "Networks in Cognitive Systems / Trends and Challenge in Biomedicine: From Cerebral Process to Mathematical Tools Design", Chile, represent an explicit invitation to the reader to dive deeper into this fascinating terrain.