A guide to mycetisms: A toxicological and preventive overview.

Fungi are often considered a delicacy and are primarily cultivated and harvested, although numerous species are responsible for intoxication due to toxin content. Foodborne diseases are a significant public health concern, causing approximately 420 000 deaths and 600 million morbidities yearly, of which mushroom poisoning is one of the leading causes. Epidemiological data on non-cultivated mushroom poisoning in individual countries are often unrepresentative, as intoxication rarely requires emergency intervention. On the other hand, the lack of specialist knowledge among medical personnel about the toxicological manifestations of mushroom consumption may result in ineffective therapeutic interventions. This work aims to provide an easy-to-consult and wide-ranging tool useful for better understanding the variability of mushroom intoxications, the associated symptoms, and the main treatments for the most severe cases, given the absence of a complete species mapping tool toxic. Moreover, we establish an effective collection network that describes the incidence of mushroom poisonings by reporting the species and associated toxicological manifestations for each case. In conclusion, we highlight the need to establish appropriate primary prevention interventions, such as training the affected population and increasing consultancy relationships between mycological experts and specialised healthcare personnel.

We propose a review of the literature that describes the main syndromes resulting from the consumption of toxic fungal species, reporting symptoms and clinical manifestations, latency times and, where possible, diagnostic tools for recognising the species involved and interventions to be carried out.

Alternatives for mushroom poisoning timely care in Mexico and Central America.

BACKGROUND: In countries where the consumption of mushrooms is common, hundreds of mushroom poisonings occur every year, which represents a public health problem. In Mexico, mushroom poisoning is classified as a non-bacterial gastrointestinal poisoning, which prevents timely care. OBJECTIVE: To create a free-access platform that synthesizes and standardizes the information on mycetism cases and offers tools for diagnosis and timely treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In locations where cases of mycetism have occurred, information was obtained on the fungi involved, the poisonings that occurred, care protocols, and sample processing. RESULTS: Records were generated that synthesize and describe the types of mycetism with the highest probability of occurrence in Mexico. Therein, the biological characteristics of fungi, the symptoms they cause and their treatment are described. A protocol proposal for patient care and for the processing of biological samples is presented. Finally, a form is included to collect information on cases of poisoning. CONCLUSIONS: Systematized and analyzed information on mycetism allows to simplify its diagnosis, attention and treatment. The protocols for clinical care and sample processing are the basis for generating strategies that prevent deaths due to mycetism.

ANTECEDENTES: En países donde el consumo de hongos es frecuente ocurren cientos de casos de micetismos al año, por lo que representan un problema de salud pública. En México, los micetismos son clasificados como una intoxicación gastrointestinal de tipo no bacteriano, lo que impide su atención oportuna. OBJETIVO: Crear una plataforma de libre acceso que sintetice y estandarice la información de los casos de micetismos y ofrezca herramientas para su diagnóstico y tratamiento oportuno. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: En localidades donde han ocurrido casos de micetismos se obtuvo información sobre los hongos involucrados, las intoxicaciones ocurridas, protocolos de atención y procesamiento de muestras. RESULTADOS: Se generaron cédulas que sintetizan y describen las intoxicaciones por hongos con mayor probabilidad de ocurrencia en México. En ellas se describen las características biológicas de los hongos, síntomas que provocan y su tratamiento. Se presenta una propuesta de protocolo para la atención del paciente y para el procesamiento de muestras biológicas. Por último, se incluye un formulario para recopilar información sobre los casos de intoxicaciones. CONCLUSIONES: La información sistematizada y analizada sobre los micetismos permite simplificar su diagnóstico, atención y tratamiento. Los protocolos para la atención clínica y el procesamiento de muestras son la base para generar estrategias que eviten decesos por micetismo.

Alternativas para la atención oportuna de las intoxicaciones por consumo de hongos en México y Centroamérica / Alternatives for mushroom poisoning timely care in Mexico and Central America

Resumen Antecedentes: En países donde el consumo de hongos es frecuente ocurren cientos de casos de micetismos al año, por lo que representan un problema de salud pública. En México, los micetismos son clasificados como una intoxicación gastrointestinal de tipo no bacteriano, lo que impide su atención oportuna. Objetivo: Crear una plataforma de libre acceso que sintetice y estandarice la información de los casos de micetismos y ofrezca herramientas para su diagnóstico y tratamiento oportuno. Material y métodos: En localidades donde han ocurrido casos de micetismos se obtuvo información sobre los hongos involucrados, las intoxicaciones ocurridas, protocolos de atención y procesamiento de muestras. Resultados: Se generaron cédulas que sintetizan y describen las intoxicaciones por hongos con mayor probabilidad de ocurrencia en México. En ellas se describen las características biológicas de los hongos, síntomas que provocan y su tratamiento. Se presenta una propuesta de protocolo para la atención del paciente y para el procesamiento de muestras biológicas. Por último, se incluye un formulario para recopilar información sobre los casos de intoxicaciones. Conclusiones: La información sistematizada y analizada sobre los micetismos permite simplificar su diagnóstico, atención y tratamiento. Los protocolos para la atención clínica y el procesamiento de muestras son la base para generar estrategias que eviten decesos por micetismo.

Abstract Background: In countries where the consumption of mushrooms is common, hundreds of mushroom poisonings occur every year, which represents a public health problem. In Mexico, mushroom poisoning is classified as a non-bacterial gastrointestinal poisoning, which prevents timely care. Objective: To create a free-access platform that synthesizes and standardizes the information on mycetism cases and offers tools for diagnosis and timely treatment. Material and methods: In locations where cases of mycetism have occurred, information was obtained on the fungi involved, the poisonings that occurred, care protocols, and sample processing. Results: Infographics were generated that synthesize and describe the types of mycetism with the highest probability of occurrence in Mexico. Therein, the biological characteristics of fungi, the symptoms they cause and their treatment are described. A protocol proposal for patient care and for the processing of biological samples is presented. Finally, a form is included to collect information on cases of poisoning. Conclusions: Systematized and analyzed information on mycetism allows to simplify its diagnosis, attention and treatment. The protocols for clinical care and sample processing are the basis for generating strategies that prevent deaths due to mycetism.

Mushroom Poisoning: A Case Series With a Literature Review of Cases in the Indian Subcontinent.

Mushroom is a fungus widely used as an edible in various parts of the world, especially in hilly regions with damp climates. Nevertheless, when picked from the wild to use as a vegetable, it has proved fatal for people ingesting it due to a lack of knowledge for distinguishing between poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms by the people of the local community. Three cases presented as emergencies from a single household comprising a 13-year-old girl and both her grandparents following the ingestion of mushrooms picked from a nearby forest area. Luckily the parents of the girl were out for work, so they survived and helped identify the mushroom. Most cases are not reported or documented, and data are present mainly in the form of case reports.

Mycetism - A report of three cases with review of recent literature.

Wild mushroom grow abundantly in the tropical belts of India, and they form part of the diet among the ethnic tribes. However, wild mushrooms are toxic, and some cause organ failure, namely fulminant hepatitis and kidney injury. Mushroom poisoning is frequently diagnosed based on clinical suspicion, and death has been reported commonly because of the consumption of amatoxin-containing mushrooms. In this article, we discuss three cases of amatoxin-induced mushroom poisoning that resulted in acute kidney and liver failure, requiring intensive medical management and renal replacement therapy. One of these patients died from irreversible fulminant hepatitis.

Mushroom mycetism - A neglected and challenging medical emergency in the Indian subcontinent: A road map for its prevention and treatment.

Edible mushrooms, a class of macroscopic fungi, serve as delicious and nutritious food supplements around the world. Nevertheless, accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms that results in fatality or severe illness is typical in all countries, especially among the tribal indigenous communities that forage wild mushrooms for food. In the Indian subcontinent, mushroom poisoning cases are underreported and neglected. Different classes of toxins, characterized from the poisonous mushrooms found globally, show variable clinical symptoms post-consumption. Although the Indian subcontinent is a biodiversity hotspot and home to different classes of fungi and mushrooms, many species of poisonous mushrooms and their toxins, have yet to be identified and characterized. No epidemiological studies or retrospective analyses of mushroom poisoning cases have been reported from the poison control centers in the Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, some limited clinical and epidemiological data is available from India and Nepal, and therefore, we critically analyse the mushroom poisoning scenario in these countries, and discuss the mushroom toxins that are likely responsible for the post-ingestion toxicities. We also correlate the clinical manifestations of mushroom intoxication in India and Nepal with the pharmacological properties of the prevalent mushroom toxins in these countries. Our limited study of mushroom poisoning demonstrates that the adverse pharmacological effects of amatoxin, one of the deadliest mushroom toxins, are responsible for the highest mortality and morbidity in India and Nepal. Further, no specific antidote is available to treat mushroom intoxication in the region, and systemic and supportive care is all that is available for in-patient management of cases of severe poisoning. We also suggest a roadmap for the prevention and specific treatment against mushroom poisoning in the Indian subcontinent.

Clinicopathological Aspects of Death due to Wild Mushroom Poisoning: An Autopsy Report.

Mushrooms are widely cultivated and used as a source of diet and commerce; however, unfortunately, some wild mushrooms are highly toxic to humans. Although the poisonous mushrooms have a characteristic physical appearance, sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between the poisonous and nonpoisonous variety even by the experts. We report a case of a 23-year-old married female who mistakenly harvested and consumed wild mushrooms along with her family members and subsequently died on the 5th-day postingestion. Due to the medicolegal implications, a forensic autopsy was conducted in this case. Here, we discuss clinical findings along with detailed autopsy findings of this case, including histopathology examination.

Micetismos: Parte 1: Síndromes con período de latencia tardía / Mushroom poisonings: Part 1: late-onset syndromes / Intoxicações por cogumelos: Parte 1: Síndromes com tempo de latência tardia

Los hongos son de valor nutricional, organoléptico y comercial, pero también contienen sustancias tóxicas que dan lugar a micetismos, cuyo tratamiento requiere el conocimiento del toxíndrome para poder lograr el tratamiento adecuado. En esta serie de cuatro artículos se clasifican los micetismos en base al período de latencia, que es el tiempo transcurrido desde la ingestión hasta la aparición de los síntomas, en intoxicaciones tardías, demoradas o retrasadas y tempranas o precoces. En esta parte 1 se analizan los siguientes síndromes con latencia tardía: a) Hepatotóxico o por ciclopéptidos (micetismo por amatoxinas). b) Nefrotóxico (micetismo por Amanitas nefrotóxicas). c) Eritromelalgia (micetismo por especies de Clitocybe). d) Neurotóxico epileptogénico (micetismo por giromitrina). e) Cerebeloso (micetismo por Morchella spp.). f) Encefalopático o neurotóxico tardío (micetismo por Hapalopilus rutilans). La toxicidad tardía engloba los síndromes potencialmente más graves, cuyos síntomas surgen entre 6 y 24 horas después de la ingestión. Para cada síndrome se da a conocer el tiempo de latencia, la sintomatología, las toxinas y el mecanismo de acción (cuando se conocen), y por último las especies de macromicetos involucradas. A veces, si es necesario, se discute la toxicodinamia y las metodologías de análisis. En la última sección se discuten los tratamientos generales, y más en detalle, los tratamientos para contrarrestar los micetismos debidos a amatoxinas y a giromitrina, que han sido los más estudiados de todos los analizados en esta parte 1. Esta información es considerada de valor para el conocimiento de los bioquímicos clínicos, así como de médicos toxicólogos y personal de salud de unidades de emergencia.

Mushrooms are of nutritional, organoleptic and commercial value, but they also contain toxic substances that give rise to the so-called mushroom poisoning (mycetism), whose medical management requires knowledge of the toxin in order to achieve the appropriate therapy. In this series of three articles, mushroom toxidromes are classified based on the latency period, which is the time elapsed from ingestion to the onset of the symptoms, in late, delayed-, and early-onset intoxications. In this part 1, the following late-onset syndromes are analyzed: (a) Hepatotoxicity or cyclopeptide syndrome due to amatoxins. (b) Nephrotoxicity or Amanita nephrotoxic syndrome. (c) Erythromelalgia (mycetism due to Clitocybe species). (d) Epileptogenic neurotoxicity or gyromitrinic syndrome. (e) Cerebellar syndrome due to Morchella spp. and (f) Late encephalopathic or neurotoxic syndrome due to Hapalopilus rutilans. Late toxicity comprises potentially more severe syndromes, whose symptoms appear between 6 and 24 hours after ingestion. For each syndrome, latency time, symptomatology, toxins, and the mechanism of action (when known) are analyzed, together with the species of macromycetes involved. Sometimes, if necessary, toxicodynamics and methodologies of analysis are displayed. The last section discusses in general mushroom poisoning management, and in detail, the therapy to counteract mycetism due to amatoxins and gyromitrin, which have been the most widely studied of all mushroom poisonings analyzed in this part 1. This information is considered valuable for the knowledge of clinical biochemists, as well as of medical toxicologists, and health staff of emergency units.

Os cogumelos são de valor nutricional, organoléptico e comercial, mas também contêm substâncias tóxicas que dão origem às intoxicações por cogumelos (micetismos), cujo tratamento requer o conhecimento da toxíndrome a fim de alcançar a terapia apropriada. Nessa série de três artigos, as intoxicações por cogumelos são classificadas com base no período de latência, que é o tempo decorrido desde a ingestão até o início dos sintomas, em intoxicações tardias, demoradas ou retardadas e precoces. Nessa parte 1, são analisadas as seguintes síndromes de latência tardia: (a) Hepatotóxica ou por ciclopeptídeos (intoxicações por amatoxinas). (b) Nefrotóxica (intoxicação por Amanitas nefrotóxicas). (c) Eritromelalgia (micetismo por espécies de Clitocybe). (d) Neurotóxica epileptogênica (intoxicação por giromitrina). (e) Cerebelar (intoxicação por Morchella spp. f) Encefalopática ou neurotóxica tardia (micetismo por Hapalopilus rutilans. Toxicidade tardia abrange as síndromes potencialmente mais graves, cujos sintomas aparecem entre 6 e 24 horas após a ingestão. Para cada síndrome, o tempo de latência, a sintomatologia, as toxinas e o mecanismo de ação (quando conhecidos) são dados a conhecer, juntamente com as espécies de macromicetos envolvidos. Às vezes, se necessário, a toxicodinâmica e as metodologias de análise são discutidas. A seção final discute os tratamentos gerais e, mais detalhadamente, os tratamentos para a abordagem terapêutica dos micetismos por amatoxinas e giromitrina, que têm sido os mais estudados de todos os analisados nessa parte 1. Essa informação é considerada de valor para o conhecimento dos bioquímicos clínicos, bem como para médicos toxicologistas e pessoal de saúde das unidades de emergência.

Sociodemographic differences in the cultural significance of edible and toxic mushrooms among Tsotsil towns in the Highlands of Chiapas, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Mushrooms are important forest resources, mostly as food, despite the serious health threat posed by toxic species. In the Highlands of Chiapas, numerous wild mushroom intoxications have been registered. While Chiapas has been vastly studied from an ethnomycological perspective, no certainty exists as to how nomenclature systems differentiate edible and toxic species, which species are most culturally significant, and whether sociodemographic factors relate to how well-known they are in the Highlands of Chiapas. This paper evaluates which are the most culturally significant edible and toxic wild mushroom species in seven Tsotsil communities from this region and whether differences exist in their knowledge relating to different sociodemographic subsets (gender, schooling, and occupation). The hypothesis that there is a difference in the number of species that people mention, as well as the number of times each ethno-taxon is mentioned, between people from different social groups was tested. METHODS: With consent, 133 Tsotsil people from seven communities were interviewed. Interviews focused on local systematics and free listings of edible and toxic mushrooms. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed, including multivariate methods and non-parametric statistics. RESULTS: Twenty-five edible and 15 toxic taxa were mentioned. Some directly correspond to Linneanean species, while others are subdifferentiated or supradifferentiated. Only 62% of the interviewees named toxic mushrooms. The most frequently mentioned edible taxa were Amanita hayalyuy and A. jacksoniii, Agaricus spp., and Armillaria mellea. The most frequently mentioned toxic species were Amanita muscaria, Suillellus luridus, and Russula emetica. Significant differences in the number of mentioned edible ethnotaxa were found only among different occupations and schooling. The models including schooling interacting with either gender or occupation are better supported. Significant differences in the number of times toxic ethnotaxa are mentioned were found only between men and women. CONCLUSIONS: The Tsotsil region of the Highlands of Chiapas is where the most average mushroom species are recognized state-wide. Schooling and occupation seem most determinant for people to know more or less species of mushrooms, while gender appears irrelevant. People with no studies and field-related occupations name more species. Identification criteria to distinguish edible from toxic species seem to rest not on detailed recognition of the second set but precise knowledge of the first.

Toxicity Assessment of Wild Mushrooms from the Western Ghats, India: An in Vitro and Sub-Acute in Vivo Study.

Background: Poisoning by different kinds of toxic mushrooms is unfortunately becoming an increasingly important medical problem, evident from the growing number of reports worldwide since the 1950s. Mycetism being a health concern, deserves scientific attention. In this perspective, the present study aims to assess the potential effects of ingesting the selected wild mushrooms from regions of the Western Ghats, India. Methods: The preliminary cytotoxicity of the selected mushrooms was studied in vitro on the intestinal NCM460 and the Chang's liver cell lines on the basis of cell viability. Further, the hepatotoxicity was assessed by measuring biologically relevant endpoints such as membrane integrity, mitochondrial stress and oxidative status. A 28 day sub-acute toxicity study was carried out by orally administering the mushroom extracts to mice at 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight. The hematological and serum analysis as well as histological examinations were carried out to evaluate their in vivo toxicity. GC-MS analysis of the mushrooms facilitated the identification of their volatile chemical profile. Result: The in vitro intestinal cytotoxicity exhibited by these wild mushrooms in comparison to the edible mushroom indicated their potential gastrointestinal toxicity. The pathological findings in small intestine on exposure to Chlorophyllum molybdites and Agaricus endoxanthus also validates the speculations about their intestinal toxicity. The toxic insult to the hepatocytes due to Amanita angustilamellata, Entoloma crassum, and Clarkeinda trachodes was predictive of the observed in vivo hepatotoxicity which was also accompanied by renal toxicity at the higher dose of 500 mg/kg bwt. Conclusion: The potential toxicity exhibited by these representative mushrooms from the wild warrants caution about their consumption. The present work could also have broader implications for global mycetism.

Wild mushroom poisoning in north India: case series with review of literature.

Mushroom is an important constituent of diet in many ethnic tribes in India. Ethnic Indian tribes are known to consume nearly 283 species of wild mushrooms out of 2000 species recorded world over. Although they are experts in distinguishing the poisonous from edible mushrooms, yet occasional cases of toxicity are reported due to accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms. We report amanita like toxicity in a family after consumption of wild mushrooms resulting in fatal outcome.

Incidences of poisonings due to Chlorophyllum molybdites in the state of Paraná, Brazil

Three recent cases of poisoning by Chlorophyllum molybdites, including the first one known from Brazil, have been reported from the state of Paraná. A morphological description of the material causing the first poisoning was provided and the associated case history has been described in detail. An overview of this species' distribution in Brazil is given.

Três casos recentes de envenenamento por Chlorophyllum molybdites, incluindo o primeiro caso conhecido para o Brasil, são relatados do Estado do Paraná. Uma descrição morfológica do material que causou o primeiro envenenamento é apresentada, assim como uma narrativa detalhada do respectivo caso clínico. É, ainda, fornecido um panorama da distribuição desta espécie no Brasil.