An evaluation of methods for studying the effects of conditioned reinforcement on human choice.

Shahan et al. (2006) found that the relative rate of pigeons' pecking on two observing responses (i.e., responses that only produced an S+ or stimulus correlated with primary reinforcement) was well described by the relative rate of S+ delivery. Researchers have not evaluated the effects of S+ delivery rate in a concurrent observing response procedure with human subjects, so the necessary procedural modifications for studying the effects of conditioned reinforcement on human choice remain unclear. The purpose of the current study was to conduct an additive component analysis of modifications to the procedures of Shahan et al. (2006). We evaluated the additive effects of introducing response cost, a changeover response, and ordinal discriminative stimuli on correspondence with the results of Shahan et al. and the quality of fits of the generalized matching equation. When our procedures were most similar to those of Shahan et al., we observed low rates of observing and indifference between the two observing responses. For the group of subjects with whom all three additive components were included, we obtained the highest level of sensitivity to relative rate of S+ delivery, but the slope and R2 of our fits of the generalized matching equation were still much lower than those obtained by Shahan et al. Potential reasons for these discrepancies, methods of resolving them, and implications for future research are discussed.

Effects of differential observing responses on observational learning across multiple contingencies.

Whether a child with autism spectrum disorder will exhibit observational learning may depend on their attention to and the stimulus modalities of the observed contingency. We used multiple-probe and repeated-acquisition designs to test observational learning across a diverse set of contingencies, which included hidden edible, hidden toy, hidden video, tact, receptive identification, and intraverbal contingencies. During preteaching, 2 children with autism spectrum disorder showed observational learning with some contingencies. After learning to engage in differential observing responses for observed behaviors and consequences with the hidden-video contingency, 1 child showed generalization of observational learning with receptive identification and intraverbals. Neither child showed generalization with the tact contingency. Thus, teaching was initiated with the tact contingency, which led to generalization of observational learning with tacts. The efficacy of teaching differential observing responses over observational learning was demonstrated. Inconsistent observational learning across contingencies suggests scientist-practitioners should assess observational learning across a variety of contingencies.

Neural circuitry of information seeking.

Humans and animals navigate uncertain environments by seeking information about the future. Remarkably, we often seek information even when it has no instrumental value for aiding our decisions - as if the information is a source of value in its own right. In recent years, there has been a flourishing of research into these non-instrumental information preferences and their implementation in the brain. Individuals value information about uncertain future rewards, and do so for multiple reasons, including valuing resolution of uncertainty and overweighting desirable information. The brain motivates this information seeking by tapping into some of the same circuitry as primary rewards like food and water. However, it also employs cortex and basal ganglia circuitry that predicts and values information as distinct from primary reward. Uncovering how these circuits cooperate will be fundamental to understanding information seeking and motivated behavior as a whole, in our increasingly complex and information-rich world.

Establishing initial auditory-visual conditional discriminations and emergence of initial tacts in young children with autism spectrum disorder.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often display impaired listener skills, and few studies have evaluated procedures for establishing initial auditory-visual conditional discrimination skills. We developed and evaluated a treatment package for training initial auditory-visual conditional discriminations based on the extant research on training such discriminations in children with ASD with at least some preexisting skills in this area. The treatment package included (a) conditional-only training, (b) prompting the participant to echo the sample stimulus as a differential observing response, (c) prompting correct selection responses using an identity-match prompt, (d) using progressively delayed prompts, and (e) repeating trials until the participant emitted an independent correct response. Results indicated all participants mastered all listener targets, and the two participants for whom we tested the emergence of corresponding tacts showed mastery of most tacts without direct training. We discuss these results relative to prior research on listener skills and tacts.

A resposta de observação e os estudos sobre discriminação nas décadas de 1930 e 1940 / Observing response and discrimination learning in 1930s and 1940s

A investigação empírica sobre o processo da discriminação realizada nas décadas de 1930 e 1940 foi acompanhada por um longo debate, conhecido como a Controvérsia Continuidade vs. Descontinuidade. Questões sobre a natureza seletiva da discriminação e o papel de respostas sensoriais compuseram o problema de pesquisa de Wyckoff, que culminaria na elaboração do conceito e do delineamento experimental da resposta de observação. Com o objetivo de regatar o contexto histórico de surgimento da resposta de observação, a presente pesquisa foi conduzida com base nas referências dos artigos originais de Wyckoff. O delineamento de observação permitiu a obtenção de medidas independentes de duas classes de respostas importantes para o estabelecimento da discriminação. O papel das respostas sensoriais e, especificamente, da resposta de observação foram abordados experimentalmente a partir de condições experimentais, nas quais o contato do organismo com os estímulos discriminativos não foi garantido ou favorecido pelo arranjo de estímulo.

Empirical research on discrimination conducted in 1930s and 1940s was accompanied by a long debate, known as Continuity vs. Non-continuity Controversy. Questions about the selective nature of discrimination and the role of sensory responses composed the research problem that would culminate in the elaboration of the concept and the experimental design of the observing response. In order to present the historical context of the observing response, the present work was conducted based on the references of Wyckoff's original articles. Observing design allowed independent measurements of two classes of responses. The role of sensory responses and specifically observing response were experimentally investigated from experimental conditions in which the contact of the organism with discriminative stimuli was not guaranteed or favored by the stimulus arrangement.

Acquisition and generative responding following print-to-braille construction response training with sighted learners.

Previous researchers have taught sighted adults to match braille sample stimuli to print comparisons in a matching-to-sample (MTS) format and assessed the emergence of other braille repertoires, such as transcribing and reading braille following this training. Although participants learned to match to sample with braille, they displayed limited emergence of other braille repertoires. Lack of generative responding may have resulted from participants' over-selective attending to components of compound braille characters during instruction. We taught undergraduates to construct braille characters given a print sample, which required attending to each individual braille symbol, and assessed generative braille responding. Participants met mastery of 378 braille construction responses and demonstrated modestly improved responding compared with previous research.

An Evaluation of Differential Observing Responses During Receptive Label Training.

The current study compared the use of a differential observing response (DOR) during receptive label training to a condition without the DOR. We extended the research on DORs used during receptive label training by using them with progressive prompt delay procedures and assessing responding following mastery without the DOR. Results indicated that both participants performed better in the DOR condition during the first comparison, but results were less clear in the second comparison.

Teaching multiply controlled intraverbals to children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders.

Reciprocal conversations, instructional activities, and other social interactions are replete with multiply controlled intraverbals, examples of which have been conceptualized in terms of conditional discriminations. Although the acquisition of conditional discriminations has been examined extensively in the behavior-analytic literature, little research has evaluated procedures to establish multiply controlled intraverbals. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effects of procedures based on conditional discrimination training on the acquisition of multiply controlled intraverbals with 7 participants who had been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. We evaluated the effects of prompt delay with error correction, a differential observing response (DOR), and a DOR plus blocked trials on the acquisition of intraverbals using a multiple baseline design. Accuracy of intraverbal performance increased for at least 1 set of stimuli for all participants under prompt delay with error correction conditions; however, 4 participants required additional teaching (i.e., DOR, modified DOR, modified prompt delay with error correction). Based on these findings, when prompt delay with error correction is not sufficient to establish multiply controlled intraverbals, prompted DORs may be an effective alternative.

Uma proposta de demarcação da análisedescritiva do comportamento ordinal nocontexto da literatura operante / A demarcation of the descriptive analysis of ordinal behaviorin the operant literature

Parcela da literatura operante sustenta expressiva produção de conhecimentos sobre resolução de problemas, resposta de observação e relações de contingência entre respostas com diferentes probabilidades de ocorrência (Princípio de Premack). O presente trabalho investigou possíveis convergências entre uma análise descritiva do comportamento ordinal e tal parcela da literatura operante. Análises conceituais e metodológicas de material bibliográfico salientaram a relevância da sequência de eventos funcionalmente relacionados na caracterização da produção de conhecimentos sobre resolução de problema, sobre resposta de observação e sobre o Princípio de Premack viabilizando aproximações entre programas de pesquisas sobre repertórios comportamentais complexos, bem como expansões em estratégias de investigação sobre responder ordinal.(AU)

A portion of operant literature supports significant production of knowledge about problem solving, observation response and contingency relations between responses with different probabilities of occurrence (Premack Principle). This study investigated possible convergences between a descriptive analysis of ordinal behavior and such portion of the operant literature. Conceptual and methodological analysis of publications have highlighted the relevance of the sequence of events functionally related to the characterization of the production of knowledge about problem solving, observation response and the Premack Principle enabling approaches between programs of research on complex behavioral repertoires as well as expansions in research strategies concerning ordinal responding.(AU)

Uma proposta de demarcação da análise descritiva do comportamento ordinal no contexto da literatura operante / A demarcation of the descriptive analysis of ordinal behaviorin the operant literature

Parcela da literatura operante sustenta expressiva produção de conhecimentos sobre resolução de problemas, resposta de observação e relações de contingência entre respostas com diferentes probabilidades de ocorrência (Princípio de Premack). O presente trabalho investigou possíveis convergências entre uma análise descritiva do comportamento ordinal e tal parcela da literatura operante. Análises conceituais e metodológicas de material bibliográfico salientaram a relevância da sequência de eventos funcionalmente relacionados na caracterização da produção de conhecimentos sobre resolução de problema, sobre resposta de observação e sobre o Princípio de Premack viabilizando aproximações entre programas de pesquisas sobre repertórios comportamentais complexos, bem como expansões em estratégias de investigação sobre responder ordinal.

A portion of operant literature supports significant production of knowledge about problem solving, observation response and contingency relations between responses with different probabilities of occurrence (Premack Principle). This study investigated possible convergences between a descriptive analysis of ordinal behavior and such portion of the operant literature. Conceptual and methodological analysis of publications have highlighted the relevance of the sequence of events functionally related to the characterization of the production of knowledge about problem solving, observation response and the Premack Principle enabling approaches between programs of research on complex behavioral repertoires as well as expansions in research strategies concerning ordinal responding.

O aprendizado sobre a (ir)relevância dos estímulos / Learning about the (ir)relevance of stimuliîen

O problema desta pesquisa se configura em analisar as variáveis envolvidas no aprendizado da resposta de observação visual apropriada em arranjos com diferentes variações de estímulos irrelevantes e as implicações deste aprendizado para o estabelecimento da discriminação. O aprendizado da resposta de observação apropriada não vem apenas expor o animal aos estímulos especificados, no sentido de que o animal passa a atentar a eles, mas envolve o aprendizado sobre a relevância desses estímulos e, simultaneamente faz com que o animal deixe de atentar e a responder aos estímulos irrelevantes. No que se refere ao estabelecimento da discriminação, este problema de pesquisa foi tratado prioritariamente no período pressolução. Ampla extensão do período pressolução ou mesmo falhas no estabelecimento da discriminação podem ser determinadas por falhas no aprendizado sobre a relevância dos estímulos discriminativos. Nesse sentido, o procedimento proposto objetiva analisar o papel dos estímulos irrelevantes sobre a distribuição das respostas de observação e o aprendizado daquela que foi definida como apropriada em função dos estímulos discriminativos. A análise foi realizada em tarefas de discriminação simultânea com diferentes variações de pares de estímulos irrelevantes. Estas variações foram apresentadas para quatro grupos de oito participantes cada. Estas variações foram apresentadas na seguinte ordem: Constante (Grupo Const) Inter-tentativas (Grupo Inter) Intra-tentativas (Grupo Intra) Variações combinadas (Grupo Comb). Os resultados mostraram que a extensão do período pressolução para os Grupos Intra e Comb foi maior do que para os Grupos Const e Inter. Inversamente, a distribuição da observação para os estímulos discriminativos foi menor para os Grupos Intra e Comb em comparação aos demais grupos nas três primeiras tentativas(AU)

The problem of this research is to analyze the variables involved in appropriate visual observing learning in arrangements with different variations of irrelevant stimuli and its implications for the discrimination establishment. The learning of the observing response comes not only expose the animal to discriminative stimuli in the sense that the animal begins to pay attention to them, but involves learning about the relevance of these stimuli. Simultaneously the animal ignores the irrelevant stimuli. Wide extension of the pre-solution period can be determined by failures in learning about the relevance of the discriminative stimuli. In this sense, the procedure aims to analyze the role of irrelevant stimuli on the distribution of observing responses. The analysis was performed in simultaneous discrimination tasks with different variations of irrelevant stimuli. These variations were made for four groups of each eight participants. These variations were presented in the following order: Constant (Group Const) - Inter-trials (Group Inter) - Intra-trials (Group Intra) combined variations (Group Comb). The results showed that the extent of pre-solution period for Intra and Comb groups was greater than for Const and Inter Groups. Conversely, the distribution of the observation to the discriminative stimuli was smaller for Intra and Comb groups compared to the other groups in the first three trials(AU)

Effects of a differential observing response on intraverbal performance of preschool children: a preliminary investigation.

Axe (2008) speculated that some instances of intraverbal responding might be associated with limited or delayed acquisition because they require discrimination of multiple components of verbal stimuli. Past studies suggest that acquisition of responses under control of complex, multicomponent antecedent stimuli (e.g., conditional or compound stimulus control) can be facilitated with the introduction of a differential observing response (DOR; Dube & McIlvane, 1999; Gutowski, Geren, Stromer, & Mackay, 1995). The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of a DOR (i.e., repeating the question) on intraverbal responding with six neurotypical preschool children. Findings included that (a) accuracy of intraverbal performance increased when the experimenter prompted a DOR; (b) 1 of 6 participants overtly emitted the DOR for a second relation in the absence of prompts, which was correlated with increased accuracy; and (c) following mastery, response accuracy was variable for 3 participants. Based on these findings, prompted DORs may offer an effective, if temporary, aid to intraverbal instruction for neurotypical preschool children.

Manutenção de respostas de observação por classes de estímulos formadas por reversões repetidas de discriminações / Observing responses maintained by stimulus-classes formed through repeated reversal shifts

Estudos demonstram que estímulos discriminativos de maiores probabilidades de reforço mantêm respostas de observação. Por sua vez, estímulos que compartilham funções discriminativas podem compor uma classe funcional de estímulos. Em vista disso, esta pesquisa investigou se estímulos que compartilhavam funções discriminativas, ao formar classes funcionais, passariam a reforçar respostas de observação. Dez adultos foram expostos a um treino discriminativo simples simultâneo com dois conjuntos de quatro estímulos cada. Na sequência, de modo a estabelecer classes funcionais, foram realizadas quatro reversões de contingências com tentativas de teste (sonda). Durante todo o procedimento, os participantes usaram um equipamento de rastreamento ocular para mensurar suas respostas de observação. Os resultados mostraram que oito participantes aprenderam as discriminações; sete participantes mostraram formação de classes funcionais com pelo menos um dos conjuntos usados; e, para um participante, não houve formação de classes. A avaliação das respostas de observação mostrou que, para quatro participantes, estímulos que compuseram em classes funcionais passaram a manter correspondentemente respostas de observação, sugerindo que, ao se estabelecerem como classes de estímulos discriminativos, os estímulos passaram a exercer funções reforçadoras condicionadas para respostas de observação. Dessa forma, classes de estímulos discriminativos constituem-se, também, como classes de reforçadores condicionados(AU)

Studies have demonstrated that discriminative stimuli paired with high probabilities of reinforcement maintain observing responses in a higher rate than those stimuli paired with low probabilities of reinforcement or extinction. On the other hand, stimuli that share discriminative functions may become a functional stimulus-class. Considering this, the present research evaluated whether stimuli that share discriminative functions by becoming a functional class would also acquire a reinforcing function for observing responses. Ten adults were submitted to a simple simultaneous discriminative training with two sets of four stimuli each. Then, to establish functional classes, four contingency reversals with test trials were conducted. Throughout the procedure, participants observing responses were measured with an eye-tracker device. Eight participants learned the discriminations. Seven participants showed evidence of functional class formation for at least one of the sets used, and one participant showed no evidence of functional class formation. Observing measures showed that the stimulus-set that became functional classes for four participants also maintained their observing responses. These data suggest that, when a set of stimuli becomes a discriminative stimulus-class, the stimuli in the set acquire conditioned reinforcement functions for observing responses. This evidence suggests that discriminative stimulus-classes are classes of conditioned reinforcers(AU)

Medidas de Controle de estímulos: fixações do olhar como respostas de observação naturais / Measurement of stimulus control: eye fixations as natural observing responses

Análises dos movimentos dos olhos frequentemente apresentam resultados inconclusivos sobre a função discriminativa dos estímulos que estes movimentos produzem. Esta pesquisa objetivou apresentar a análise da primeira fixação dos olhos de participantes em cada componente de uma tarefa de discriminação simples sucessiva como indicadora das funções discriminativas de dois conjuntos de estímulos. Quatro universitários foram submetidos a tarefas de discriminação em que respostas em um teclado produziram pontos quando emitidas diante de um conjunto de estímulos, mas não de outro. O olhar dos participantes foi rastreado. Realizaram-se análises da frequência total, duração total, duração média e duração da primeira fixação dos olhos dos participantes sobre os SDs. A duração da primeira fixação se mostrou mais preditiva das diferentes funções dos conjuntos de estímulos antecedentes à tarefa manual. Os resultados são discutidos em termos das características dinâmicas dos estímulos e da importância de análises dos movimentos dos olhos no âmbito aplicado.(AU)

Behavior analyses of eye movements frequently present non-conclusive results about discriminative functions of the stimuli produced by these movements in relation to following responses. This paper presents an analysis of the first fixation of the eyes of the participants on each component during a simple, successive discrimination task as indicative of discriminative functions of two stimuli sets. Four undergraduate students were separately submitted to a simple, successive discrimination task in which space bar pressing on a computer keyboard produced points when emitted during presentation of stimuli of one set but not during presentation of stimuli of a second set. After discriminative control of bar pressing was achieved discriminative functions were reverted. Eye movements of participants were tracked during session. Analyses of total frequency, total duration, average duration, and first duration of eye fixations of the participants toward each set of discriminative stimuli were made. Duration of first fixation was more predictive of the different discriminative functions of antecedent stimuli to manual task. Results are discussed in terms of dynamic characteristics of stimuli and of the relevance of eye movements for applied sets.(AU)

Medidas de Controle de estímulos: fixações do olhar como respostas de observação naturais / Measurement of stimulus control: eye fixations as natural observing responses

Análises dos movimentos dos olhos frequentemente apresentam resultados inconclusivos sobre a função discriminativa dos estímulos que estes movimentos produzem. Esta pesquisa objetivou apresentar a análise da primeira fixação dos olhos de participantes em cada componente de uma tarefa de discriminação simples sucessiva como indicadora das funções discriminativas de dois conjuntos de estímulos. Quatro universitários foram submetidos a tarefas de discriminação em que respostas em um teclado produziram pontos quando emitidas diante de um conjunto de estímulos, mas não de outro. O olhar dos participantes foi rastreado. Realizaram-se análises da frequência total, duração total, duração média e duração da primeira fixação dos olhos dos participantes sobre os SDs. A duração da primeira fixação se mostrou mais preditiva das diferentes funções dos conjuntos de estímulos antecedentes à tarefa manual. Os resultados são discutidos em termos das características dinâmicas dos estímulos e da importância de análises dos movimentos dos olhos no âmbito aplicado.

Behavior analyses of eye movements frequently present non-conclusive results about discriminative functions of the stimuli produced by these movements in relation to following responses. This paper presents an analysis of the first fixation of the eyes of the participants on each component during a simple, successive discrimination task as indicative of discriminative functions of two stimuli sets. Four undergraduate students were separately submitted to a simple, successive discrimination task in which space bar pressing on a computer keyboard produced points when emitted during presentation of stimuli of one set but not during presentation of stimuli of a second set. After discriminative control of bar pressing was achieved discriminative functions were reverted. Eye movements of participants were tracked during session. Analyses of total frequency, total duration, average duration, and first duration of eye fixations of the participants toward each set of discriminative stimuli were made. Duration of first fixation was more predictive of the different discriminative functions of antecedent stimuli to manual task. Results are discussed in terms of dynamic characteristics of stimuli and of the relevance of eye movements for applied sets.

Reducing stimulus overselectivity through an increased observing-response requirement.

An adult with autism and a mild intellectual disability participated in a 0-s delayed matching-to-sample task. In each trial, two sample stimuli were presented together until the participant completed an observing-response requirement consisting of 1 or 10 mouse clicks in the baseline and experimental phases, respectively. One of the two sample stimuli then appeared randomly as a comparison stimulus (S+), along with two other comparison stimuli (S-). Higher levels of correct responding occurred under the larger observing-response requirement, and the proportion of errors related to one of the two sample stimuli decreased. Thus, stimulus overselectivity was reduced without requiring differential observing responses.

Estímulo discriminativo de extinção produzido por respostas de observação em pombos / Discriminative stimulus of extinction produced by observing responses in pigeons

Pombos privados de comida foram expostos a tentativas que podiam terminar com ou sem a apresentação de comida independentemente de qualquer resposta. Durante uma tentativa, bicadas podiam mudar a cor do disco de resposta de branco para verde (S+) ou vermelho (S-) a depender do acionamento (ou não) do comedouro. Em linha de base, bicadas produziam ambas as cores em intervalos médios variáveis de 15 s. Em duas condições experimentais distintas, tandem VI DRH foi empregado na produção, ora de S+, ora de S-. Resultados mostraram que o esquema tandem levou a uma diminuição geral na freqüência de estímulos discriminativos produzidos, marcadamente na de S+, mas não na de S-. Esses dados fornecem suporte para o modelo de reforçamento condicionado baseado na redução da incerteza.(AU)

Food-deprived pigeons were given a series of trials in which half ended with response- independent food presentation and half without it. During a trial, pecking the key could change its color from white to green (S+) or red (S-), depending on whether food was programmed or not. In baseline conditions, pecks produced both stimuli (colors) on a 15-s variable-interval schedule. In two different conditions, tandem VI DRH was applied to produce either S+ or S-. Results showed that the tandem contingency resulted in a general decrease in the discriminative stimulus production, markedly to S+, but not to S-. The findings are consistent with the uncertainty-reduction model of conditioned reinforcement.(AU)

Estímulo discriminativo de extinção produzido por respostas de observação em pombos / Discriminative stimulus of extinction produced by observing responses in pigeons

Pombos privados de comida foram expostos a tentativas que podiam terminar com ou sem a apresentação de comida independentemente de qualquer resposta. Durante uma tentativa, bicadas podiam mudar a cor do disco de resposta de branco para verde (S+) ou vermelho (S-) a depender do acionamento (ou não) do comedouro. Em linha de base, bicadas produziam ambas as cores em intervalos médios variáveis de 15 s. Em duas condições experimentais distintas, tandem VI DRH foi empregado na produção, ora de S+, ora de S-. Resultados mostraram que o esquema tandem levou a uma diminuição geral na freqüência de estímulos discriminativos produzidos, marcadamente na de S+, mas não na de S-. Esses dados fornecem suporte para o modelo de reforçamento condicionado baseado na redução da incerteza.

Food-deprived pigeons were given a series of trials in which half ended with response- independent food presentation and half without it. During a trial, pecking the key could change its color from white to green (S+) or red (S-), depending on whether food was programmed or not. In baseline conditions, pecks produced both stimuli (colors) on a 15-s variable-interval schedule. In two different conditions, tandem VI DRH was applied to produce either S+ or S-. Results showed that the tandem contingency resulted in a general decrease in the discriminative stimulus production, markedly to S+, but not to S-. The findings are consistent with the uncertainty-reduction model of conditioned reinforcement.