Perceived vulnerability to disease in pregnancy and parenthood and its impact on newborn health.

Susceptibility to diseases and fear of infections might vary intra-individually, depending on life circumstances. The main aims of the current research were to examine whether perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) is higher in expectant women and their partners as compared to their non-pregnant peers (Study 1), and to test whether a mother's disease aversion during pregnancy relates to health of her newborn (Study 2). In Study 1 we collected cross-sectional data from 412 men and women varying in parenthood status. Pregnant female participants were more likely to exhibit higher levels of PVD as compared with childless peers, although mothers also reported relatively high PVD scores. PVD in men, generally lower than that of women, seemed to be rather independent of their parenthood status. In Study 2, a sample of 200 pregnant women completed the PVD scale during the second pregnancy trimester and a follow-up survey after their child was born. We found that PVD in pregnant women was not related to further health outcomes in their newborns. Birth weight, average Apgar score, and general health of a newborn were not associated with the pregnancy-period mother's PVD score. However, the probability of giving birth to a child with 10 Apgar points was higher in younger mothers and tended to decrease with the increasing number of health issues before pregnancy. Overall, this research contributes to understanding of the health-oriented beliefs of expectant parents and parents of infants, but it also shows that the possible, PVD-related disease avoidance has a relatively little effect on basic markers of a newborn's health.

Perceived vulnerability to disease and children's COVID behavioral response: The role of health consciousness and family financial status.

This study investigated the impact of family financial status on Chinese children's health-related traits and their behavior in controlling COVID-19. When the children were 7 years old, their guardians provided information on family financial status. When the children reached 10 years old, they completed questionnaires concerning their own health consciousness and health status. At age 11, during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, they filled out questionnaires on perceived vulnerability to disease and disease control behavior. The findings revealed that higher health consciousness is associated with better health, particularly among children from financially challenged families. Additionally, a greater perception of vulnerability to disease is linked to increased COVID-19 control behaviors, particularly in children with high health consciousness in affluent families. These results contribute to our understanding of how children's personal health-related traits and family financial status interact to shape their response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

A decline in perceived social status leads to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults half a year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic: consideration of the mediation effect of perceived vulnerability to disease.

Background/purpose: In December 2019, Wuhan, Hubei, China firstly reported the existence of the COVID-19 virus. It is crucial to prioritize the psychological well-being of citizens in lockdown cities and make more strides in the academic field of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to prepare for the post-pandemic era. Methods: We took the cognitive-relational theory as our basis and collected Hubei province-level data (N = 3,465) to examine the impact of perceived social status decline on the prevalence of PTSD symptoms, and checked the mediating effect of perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) during the period of psychological adjustment. Results: Using propensity score matching, we estimate the average treatment effect of perceived social status decline on PTSD level, and we robustly regress the two with weight adjustment generated in matching. We found that more decline in perceived social status is associated with a worse degree of PTSD symptoms, and confirmed PVD's buffering role although the mediating effect was not as high as hypothesized. Conclusion and implications: Our study confirmed the decisive role of subject social status in health prediction compared to traditional socioeconomic measures, which extends the cognitive-relational in examining socioeconomic status and contributes to the dialog on socioeconomic inequality. We also suggested providing more social support at the community level and enhancing individuals' positive understanding to protect mental health.

Evolution of preferences for COVID-19 vaccine throughout the pandemic - The choice experiment approach.

In this study, we employ a choice experiment to study individual preferences for COVID-19 vaccines in the US. A unique characteristic of the microdata (N = 5671) is that the survey was conducted in five distinct waves from October 2020 to October 2021. Because of this dynamic feature, it is possible to control for evolving pandemic conditions such as the number of COVID-19 active cases, vaccination uptake, and the frequency of Google searches related to the vaccines. Furthermore, we employ a hybrid choice model to incorporate respondents' attitudes related to their perceived vulnerability to diseases, as well as their perceived health status. The hybrid choice model was extended to incorporate latent classes as well as random effects. We find that the rate of vaccinated individuals in the population actually increases the probability of vaccine hesitancy, and therefore may discourage people to get vaccinated. This may be evidence of free-riding behavior. On the other hand, the number of COVID-19 cases has a positive effect on the probability of getting vaccinated, suggesting that individuals react to the pandemic conditions by taking some protective measures. Google trend data do not seem to have a straightforward effect on the vaccination demand, but it increases consumers' willingness to pay for several vaccine characteristics. With respect to the analyzed attitudes, we find that perceived uninfectability is a significant driver of vaccine hesitancy, probably related to the frequent "natural immunity" argument. In turn, germ aversion has a positive effect on the probability of getting vaccinated as well as on the marginal willingness to pay. Finally, health status has a limited effect on whether the individual will decide to vaccinate or not.

The Relationship Between Perceived Vulnerability to Disease and Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Serial Mediation by Fear of COVID-19 and Trust in the Government.

Purpose: The continuing global spread of COVID-19 has seriously jeopardized human mental health. How to reduce the damage of COVID-19 pandemic to people's mental health is a current research hotspot. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence mechanism of perceived vulnerability to disease on anxiety level during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: A total of 1085 Chinese subjects were investigated by using the Fear of COVID-19 Scale, Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale, Trust in the Government Measure Scale and Anxiety Scale, which was conducted by an online survey using snowball sampling technique. Hayes PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to test the hypothesized mediating effects of fear of COVID-19 and rust in the government measure in the relationship between perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) and anxiety. Results: (1) the PVD significantly positively predicts anxiety level (0.001); (2) Fear of COVID-19 (p<0.001) and trust in the government (p<0.001) mediated the relationship between PVD and anxiety level respectively; (3) PVD could also indirectly predict anxiety level through the chain-mediated role of the fear of COVID-19 and the trust in the government measure (p<0.001). Conclusion: Our findings shed light on a correlation between perceived vulnerability to disease and anxiety. This study emphasizes the value of trust in the government in facing public stress events. Moreover, this study provides some implications for how to prevent or reduce public anxiety in an epidemic setting.

From fear and vulnerability to fortitude: sustaining psychological well-being in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Despite the societal increase in mental health disorders during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, many individuals were able to cope effectively with new mental health challenges. The heterogeneity in responses to adversity underscores the influence of protective factors in promoting coping behaviour. The current study investigates fortitude as a potential protective resource by examining the potential direct, mediating, and moderating roles of fortitude in the relationship between perceived vulnerability to disease, fear of COVID-19, and indices of psychological well-being. Participants (n = 355) were schoolteachers who completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire, Fear of COVID-19 Scale, Fortitude Questionnaire, UCLA Loneliness Scale, trait scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Beck Hopelessness Scale, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Path analysis indicated that fortitude had a health-sustaining effect that was evident in its association with all indices of psychological well-being. Fortitude also mediated the relationship between perceived vulnerability to disease and depression, anxiety, and loneliness. In addition, fortitude moderated the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and depression. The significant moderating and mediating effects of fortitude on psychological outcomes support its potential for counterbalancing the negative mental health impacts of COVID-19. Interventions aimed at enhancing fortigenic appraisals of self and others may prove beneficial in promoting psychological well-being.

The influence of face mask on social spaces depends on the behavioral immune system.

Interacting with objects and people requires specifying localized spaces where these interactions can take place. Previous studies suggest that the space for interacting with objects (i.e., the peripersonal space) contributes to defining the space for interacting with people (i.e., personal and interpersonal spaces). Furthermore, situational factors, such as wearing a face mask, have been shown to influence social spaces, but how they influence the relation between action and social spaces and are modulated by individual factors is still not well understood. In this context, the present study investigated the relationship between action peripersonal and social personal and interpersonal spaces in participants approached by male and female virtual characters wearing or not wearing a face mask. We also measured individual factors related to the behavioral immune system, namely willingness to take risks, perceived infectability and germ aversion. The results showed that compared to peripersonal space, personal space was smaller and interpersonal space was larger, but the three spaces were positively correlated. All spaces were altered by gender, being shorter when participants faced female characters. Personal and interpersonal spaces were reduced with virtual characters wearing a face mask, especially in participants highly aversive to risks and germs. Altogether, these findings suggest that the regulation of the social spaces depends on the representation of action peripersonal space, but with an extra margin that is modulated by situational and personal factors in relation to the behavioral immune system.

The impact of vaccination upon dental clinic avoidance and the cessation of individual protection measures.

The aim of this study was to analyze the evolution of germ aversion, to perceived infectability and to the fear of COVID-19 from the beginning of the pandemic until the arrival of the vaccines. A repeated measures design was used with three time points during the pandemic. The survey consisted of: Scale of perceived vulnerability to disease; Scale of fear of COVID-19; They were asked if they were vaccinated and if that vaccination is complete. They were asked if they would avoid the dental clinic through fear of COVID-19; and if they have reduced preventive practice in response to COVID-19. A T0-T1 increase in perceived infectability and germ aversion was reported. However, fear of COVID-19 decreased at T1-T2. The vaccinated experienced a greater reduction than the unvaccinated and a greater relaxation of their preventive practice. The frequency of dental avoidance decreased in the vaccinated group from T1 to T2 by 68.3% while in the non-vaccinated this reduction was only 4.9%; X 2 = 18.58 (p < 0.01). In summary, vaccination has had an impact in the reduction of perceived infectability and in reducing fear of COVID-19. Nevertheless, germ aversion has remained stable and independent of vaccination. Empirical support is found for the affirmation that vaccination can reduce certain preventive behavior and dental avoidance.

Perception of Vulnerability and Ruminant Thoughts about COVID-19 in Spanish Students.

The current situation in schools in relation to COVID-19 can generate a decrease in academic performance due to factors intrinsic to students. Therefore, rumination about COVID-19 could interfere with students' attention, resulting in a decrease in their academic performance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the relationship between the perception of vulnerability to the disease and rumination about COVID-19 from a cross-sectional sample of post-compulsory education students. The differences in the perception of vulnerability to disease and rumination in different groups were analyzed, separated by gender. Our data suggest a positive relationship between the perception of vulnerability to the disease and ruminants' thoughts about COVID-19 (r = 0.29). Gender differences are significant, with women having higher scores than men in both variables.

Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire: psychometric validation with a Portuguese sample.

BACKGROUND: Individual differences in one's perceived vulnerability to infectious diseases are implicated in psychological distress, social and behavioral disease avoidance phenomena. The Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire (PVD) is the most extensively used measure when it comes to assessing subjective vulnerability to infectious diseases. However, this measure is not yet accessible to the Portuguese population. The present study aimed to adapt and validate the PVD with 136 Portuguese participants. METHODS: Factorial, convergent and discriminant validity (of both the scale and between each factor), and reliability analysis were assessed. RESULTS: A modified bifactorial model, comprised of Perceived Infectability and Germ Aversion factors, was obtained, with acceptable goodness-of-fit indices, adequate convergent and discriminant validity, and good internal consistencies. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the 10-items European-Portuguese PVD appears to be a reliable and valid measure of one's perceived vulnerability to disease, with potential relevance for application in both research and clinical practice pertaining to disease-avoidance processes.

The behavioral immune system and vaccination intentions during the coronavirus pandemic.

The behavioral immune system is considered to be a psychological adaptation that decreases the risk of infection. Research suggests that, in the current environment, this system can produce attitudes with negative health consequences, such as increased vaccine hesitancy. In three studies, we investigated whether two facets of the behavioral immune system-germ aversion (i.e., aversion to potential pathogen transmission) and perceived infectability (i.e., perceived susceptibility to disease)-predicted intentions to accept COVID-19 and influenza vaccination during the pandemic. The behavioral immune system mechanisms were measured before the COVID-19 pandemic in one study, and during the pandemic in two. In contrast to previous research, those with higher germ aversion during the pandemic perceived vaccines to be safer and had higher intentions to accept vaccination. Germ aversion before the pandemic was not associated with vaccination intentions. Individuals who perceived themselves as more susceptible to disease were slightly more willing to accept vaccination. We conjecture that high disease threat reverses the relationship between the behavioral immune system response and vaccination. As the associations were weak, individual differences in germ aversion and perceived infectability are of little practical relevance for vaccine uptake.

The Association of Perceived Vulnerability to Disease with Cognitive Restraint and Compensatory Behaviors.

Individual differences exist in perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD). PVD is associated with negative responses (e.g., disgust) towards individuals with obesity and heightened sensitivity regarding personal appearance. Through increasing fear of fat (FOF), PVD may be associated with cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors. We utilized an adult sample (n = 247; 53.3% male sex assigned at birth) recruited through Amazon's MTurk prior to the COVID-19 pandemic to investigate associations between PVD, cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors. Participants completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale, Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale, Dutch Eating Behaviors Questionnaire, and Goldfarb's Fear of Fat Scale. Mediation analyses were used to test our hypotheses. Perceived infectability (PVD-Infection) was associated with cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors through increased FOF. Perceived germ aversion (PVD-Germ) was associated with cognitive restraint, but FOF did not mediate this association. Sex-stratified analyses revealed no significant sex differences. PVD may be an overlooked factor associated with cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors in males and females. FOF was an important mediating factor in these associations. Increased engagement in cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors may reflect attempts to reduce FOF. Future longitudinal research should explore whether PVD is a risk factor for cognitive restraint and compensatory behaviors.

A serial model of the interrelationship between perceived vulnerability to disease, fear of COVID-19, and psychological distress among teachers in South Africa.

The current study examined the serial relationship between perceived vulnerability to disease, fear of COVID-19, anxiety, and psychological distress among school teachers. Participants were South African school teachers (n = 355) who completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Questionnaire, Fear of COVID-19 Scale, trait scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Beck Hopelessness Scale, and the Centre for Epidemiological Depression Scale. A path analysis confirmed that teachers who appraised themselves as more susceptible to disease, experienced heightened levels of fear of COVID-19, which led to heightened levels of anxiety, depression, and hopelessness. Specifically, germ aversion and perceived infectability were separately associated with heightened fear of COVID-19, which in turn was associated with heightened anxiety. This serial relationship was associated with heightened levels of hopelessness and depression. The current study extends research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic among a distinct subgroup of the population.

La présente étude examine la relation entre la vulnérabilité perçue face à la maladie, la peur de la COVID-19, l'anxiété et la détresse psychologique chez les enseignants. Les participants étaient des enseignants d'école, en Afrique du Sud (n = 355). Ces enseignants ont rempli un questionnaire sur la vulnérabilité perçue face à la maladie, l'échelle de la peur de la COVID-19, l'échelle des traits du « State-Trait Anxiety Inventory ¼, l'échelle de désespoir de Beck et l'échelle du « Center for Epidemiological Depression ¼. La pandémie de la COVID-19 a eu un impact sur les établissements d'enseignement dans le monde et a conduit de nombreux pays à fermer des écoles pour réduire la transmission du virus. La fermeture des écoles a précipité une transition imprévue et sans précédent de l'enseignement traditionnel en classe à l'enseignement à distance d'urgence et a changé le travail des enseignants à bien des égards. Les enseignants ont dû apprendre rapidement à utiliser les outils numériques, adapter le contenu académique à un format de diffusion en ligne et aider les élèves et les parents à négocier la transition vers l'apprentissage à distance. Dans le même temps, les enseignants devaient également gérer l'impact de la pandémie sur leur propre vie, notamment en fournissant un enseignement à domicile à leurs propres enfants et en s'occupant des membres vulnérables du ménage. Ces multiples facteurs de stress ont été associés à des niveaux accrus de détresse psychologique, y compris la dépression et l'anxiété, chez les enseignants. L'analyse du parcours, basée sur ces différentes échelles, a confirmé que les enseignants qui se considéraient comme plus sensibles à la maladie éprouvaient des niveaux accrus de peur de la COVID-19, ce qui entraînait des niveaux accrus d'anxiété, de dépression et de désespoir. Plus précisément, l'aversion aux microbes et aux virus et la propension perçue à être infecté étaient séparément associées à une peur accrue de la COVID-19, qui, à son tour, était associée à une anxiété accrue. Cette relation séquentielle est, en outre, associée à des niveaux accrus de désespoir et de dépression. La présente étude étend les recherches sur l'impact de la pandémie de la COVID-19 sur un sous-groupe distinct de la population.

Perceived Vulnerability to Disease, Knowledge and Preventive Behavior Related to COVID-19 in Farsi and Arabic Speaking Refugees.

In the face of the worldwide COVIV-19 pandemic, refugees represent a particularly vulnerable group with respect to access to health care and information regarding preventive behavior. In an online survey the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale, self-reported changes in preventive and risk behaviors, knowledge about COVID-19, and psychopathological symptoms (PHQ-4) were assessed. The convenience sample consisted of n = 76 refugees (n = 45 Arabic speaking, n = 31 Farsi speaking refugees) and n = 76 German controls matched with respect to age and sex. Refugees reported a significantly larger fear of infection, significantly less knowledge about COVID-19, and a higher frequency of maladaptive behavior, as compared to the control group. This study shows that refugees are more vulnerable to fear of infection and maladaptive behaviors than controls. Culturally adapted, easily accessible education about COVID-19 may be beneficial in improving knowledge and preventive behaviors related to COVID-19.

"Touch Me If You Can!": Individual Differences in Disease Avoidance and Social Touch.

The threat of diseases varies considerably among individuals, and it has been found to be linked to various proactive or reactive behaviors. In the present studies, we investigated the impact of individual differences in the perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) on social touch before (Study 1) or during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic (Study 2). We also investigated the influence of personality traits in the covariation between these two dimensions. We found that people who are the most disease-avoidant are also the most reluctant to touching or being touched by others (and this relationship holds when personality traits are taken into account). Interestingly, the association between PVD and social touch increased during the COVID-19 pandemic compared with a few months before. By showing that the fear of contamination has an association with social touch, the findings provide further evidence for the behavioral immune system ( Schaller and Park, 2011), a psychological system acting as a first line of defense against pathogens.

"I Teach, Therefore I Am": The Serial Relationship between Perceived Vulnerability to Disease, Fear of COVID-19, Teacher Identification and Teacher Satisfaction.

In early 2020, school closures were implemented globally to curb the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. In South Africa, emergency remote teaching was not sustainable, and conventional teaching resumed in the context of the second and third waves of the pandemic, heightening fear and anxiety about infection among teachers. The pandemic necessitated shifts in the scope of a teacher's job, potentially impacting their professional identity and job satisfaction. This study investigated the interrelationship between teaching identification, teaching satisfaction, fear of COVID-19 and perceived vulnerability to disease among a sample of South African school teachers (n = 355). A serial mediation analysis supported the hypotheses that teaching identification mediated both the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and teacher satisfaction and the association between perceived vulnerability to disease, fear of COVID-19 and teacher satisfaction. The findings suggest that teacher identification is a potential protective factor, and strengthening professional identification can potentially assist teachers as they negotiate the uncertainty and stress associated with the current pandemic.

Perceived vulnerability to disease: adaptation and validation of the PVD-br.

Perceived vulnerability to disease is characterized by the extent to which individuals perceive themselves to be susceptible to contracting infectious diseases, as well as by the emotional discomfort that results from assessing the risk of getting contaminated by pathogens. The PVD self-report scale, which measures this construct, is widely used internationally. However, it has not yet been adapted for Brazil. To address this gap, we adapted and validated the PVD scale for the Brazilian context (PVD-br) in four studies. Study 1 (N = 39) addressed translation, expert validation, and assessment of the comprehensibility of the scale's items. Study 2 (N = 200) showed that the items were organized into two correlated factors and tested the scale's items quality using the Item Response Theory. Study 3 (N = 201) confirmed the bifactorial structure and examined the invariance of PVD-br for men and women, while Study 4 analyzed the convergent (N = 432) and discriminant (N = 181) validity of the instrument. Results indicate strong evidence of content, factorial, and criterion validity.

Behind the masks: A cross-sectional study on intolerance of uncertainty, perceived vulnerability to disease and psychological flexibility in relation to state anxiety and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Early findings suggest the COVID-19 pandemic and related containment measures negatively impact mental wellbeing. This study compared the contribution and relations of three factors to anxiety and wellbeing during the pandemic in June 2020. These factors were: i) Contextual factors (e.g. exposure to COVID-19, being a keyworker, feeling lonely); ii) Cognitive appraisals: perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) and intolerance of uncertainty (IU); and iii) psychological flexibility (PF). 603 participants aged 18 or older completed an online survey of self-report measures. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated PVD, IU and PF predicted state anxiety, and IU and PF predicted mental wellbeing. Some, but not all of the contextual factors also predicted state anxiety and wellbeing. The findings support cognitive appraisal theories and the PF model, lending support to an acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) approach to public health during pandemics.

Food Neophobia and Food Disgust: The Mediating Role of Perceived Vulnerability to Disease.

Negative attitudes towards food are influenced by two factors, neophobia and often related disgust. Neophobia is the tendency to avoid new foods, while food disgust is the refusal of food that is considered potentially harmful to health. The study presented here aims to analyze the correlation between these two attitudes and the possible mediation operated by the perception of vulnerability to diseases, in order to understand if and how this contributes to the disgust towards certain unfamiliar foods. The study was developed through the administration of an anonymous questionnaire to a sample of 487 Italian citizens participating on a voluntary basis. Three tools were used: Food Neophobia Scale, Perceived Vulnerability to Disease, and Food Disgust Scale. The results showed a strong positive correlation between food disgust and food neophobia. Furthermore, through the application of structural mediation models, it has been shown that between food neophobia and food disgust, there is a mediation effect determined by perceived infectivity. The research aims to make a significant contribution to the understanding of the relationship between food disgust and some individual and psychological characteristics of people, demonstrating that the fear of disease transmission affects their food choices.

Behavioral Immune System Responses to Coronavirus: A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Explanation of Conformity, Warmth Toward Others and Attitudes Toward Lockdown.

Behavioral immune system (BIS) describes psychological mechanisms that detect cues to infectious pathogens in the immediate environment, trigger disease-relevant responses and facilitate behavioral avoidance/escape. BIS activation elicits a perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) which can result in conformity with social norms. However, a response to superficial cues can result in aversive responses to people that pose no actual threat, leading to an aversion to unfamiliar others, and likelihood of prejudice. Pathogen-neutralizing behaviors, therefore, have implications for social interaction as well as illness behaviors and responses to health communications. In this study, we investigate how PVD influences conformity, attitudes to other people and to lockdown regulations through the lens of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). RST describes personality in terms of biologically-driven approach and avoidance motivations which support personal goals. Participants from the United Kingdom public (N = 605) completed an RST personality questionnaire and then read either (a) coronavirus morbidity-mortality statistics and current United Kingdom government lifestyle regulations, (b) just the regulations (as presented in most government publicity materials), or (c) no information at all. They all completed the Perceived Vulnerability to Disease scale to assess BIS-relevant Germ Aversion and Perceived Infectability, followed by questions measuring social conformity, warmth toward others and attitudes toward lockdown measures. Significantly lower PVD scores were observed in the no-information condition, with the other conditions showing no difference. In terms of RST, approach behaviors related to goal-drive persistence work alongside fear in explaining conformity to social norms. Reward related approach behaviors partially explained warmth toward others, indicating that social rewards gained through interaction continue to be strong drivers of behavior. We found no role for RST traits in attitudes toward lockdown. Overall, coronavirus-related behavior is not driven purely by fear, but also by social and/or protection goals regulated by approach motivation. This study presents new insights into public perceptions of coronavirus and government regulated lifestyle restrictions, helping to explain social behaviors in terms of biologically driven mechanisms. Such understanding is vital if we are to successfully motivate public behavior to constrain spread of the virus.