The Amazon and Its Biodiversity: a Source of Unexplored Potential Natural Enemies for Biological Control (Predators and Parasitoids).

The Amazon is an important source of natural enemies for biological control. The diversity of biocontrol agents in the Amazon is considerably higher than that in other Brazilian regions. However, few studies have focused on the bioprospecting of natural enemies in the Amazon. Furthermore, the expansion of agricultural land in recent decades has caused biodiversity loss in the region, including the loss of potential biocontrol agents, due to the replacement of native forests with cultivated areas and forest degradation. In this study, we reviewed the main groups of natural enemies in the Brazilian Legal Amazon: predatory mites (mainly Acari: Phytoseiidae), ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and social wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae) and the Hymenoptera parasitoids of eggs (Trichogrammatidae) and of frugivorous larvae (Braconidae and Figitidae). The main species prospected and used in biological control are presented. The lack of knowledge and perspectives regarding these groups of natural enemies as well as the challenges of conducting research in the Amazon is discussed.

Mitochondrial composition of and diffusion limiting factors of three social wasp genera Polistes, Ropalidia, and parapolybia (Hymenoptera: Vespidae).

BACKGROUND: Social wasps Polistes, Ropalidia, and Parapolybia, belonging to the subfamily Polistinae, have obviously different distribution patterns, yet the factors leading to this difference remain unknown. RESULTS: The 17 newly sequenced mitogenomes of Polistes, Ropalidia, and Parapolybia contain 37 genes, and there are obvious differences among the compositions of the three genera. The monophyly of the genus Polistes and a monophyletic Ropalidiini: (Ropalidia + Parapolybia) are concordant with previous morphological analysis of the subfamily Polistinae. Our inferred divergence time demonstrates Polistes (at around 69 Ma) was diverged earlier than Ropalidia and Parapolybia (at around 61 Ma). The rearrangement of both trnY and trnL1 are shared by all the Polistinae. In addition, the unique rearrangement of TDRL derived at 69 Ma is detected in Polistes, and Ropalidia contains a Reversal which may derive at 61 Ma. Hereafter, the possibility is elaborated that Polistes originated in Aisa and then dispersed from Africa to South America, and Polistes and Ropalidia spread from Southeast Asia to Australia. At last, continental drift and Quaternary Ice Ages are inferred to be two main limiting factors in the current distributions of the three genera. CONCLUSIONS: Obvious differences occur in the mitochondrial composition of Polistes, Ropalidia, and Parapolybia. According to the reconstructed time-calibrated framework, it is inquired that the continental drifts and the climate are mainly diffusion limiting factors of the three genera.

Hormonal modulation of reproduction and fertility signaling in polistine wasps.

In social insects, it has been suggested that reproduction and the production of particular fertility-linked cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) may be under shared juvenile hormone (JH) control, and this could have been key in predisposing such cues to later evolve into full-fledged queen pheromone signals. However, to date, only few studies have experimentally tested this "hormonal pleiotropy" hypothesis. Here, we formally test this hypothesis using data from four species of Polistine wasps, Polistes dominula, Polistes satan, Mischocyttarus metathoracicus, and Mischocyttarus cassununga, and experimental treatments with JH using the JH analogue methoprene and the anti-JH precocene. In line with reproduction being under JH control, our results show that across these four species, precocene significantly decreased ovary development when compared with both the acetone solvent-only control and the methoprene treatment. Consistent with the hormonal pleiotropy hypothesis, these effects on reproduction were further matched by subtle shifts in the CHC profiles, with univariate analyses showing that in P. dominula and P. satan the abundance of particular linear alkanes and mono-methylated alkanes were affected by ovary development and our hormonal treatments. The results indicate that in primitively eusocial wasps, and particularly in Polistes, reproduction and the production of some CHC cues are under joint JH control. We suggest that pleiotropic links between reproduction and the production of such hydrocarbon cues have been key enablers for the origin of true fertility and queen signals in more derived, advanced eusocial insects.

Identification of biogenic amines involved in photoperiod-dependent caste-fate determination during the adult stage in a temperate paper wasp.

In the temperate paper wasp Polistes jokahamae, caste is influenced by photoperiod during the adult stage, but the mechanisms underlying the caste-fate determination system have been unclear. We measured the brain levels of monoamines and related substances in females kept isolated for two weeks under different photoperiods. Except for in the first-emerging group, the females developed ovaries under long-day conditions, whereas they stored lipids under short-day conditions. The levels of tyramine in the brain were significantly higher under long-day than under short-day conditions and positively correlated with maximum oocyte lengths. These results suggest that tyramine was produced in response to long daylength during the adult stage and associated with ovarian development, which is the principal characteristic of reproductive workers. There was also a significant positive correlation between dopamine levels in the brain and maximum oocyte length, independent of photoperiod, suggesting that dopamine is involved in reproductive function with tyramine resulting in the induction of reproductive workers. Meanwhile, higher levels of tryptophan in the brain were found in short-day conditions and positively correlated with lipid stores. However, serotonin synthesized from tryptophan and N-acetylserotonin were not associated with lipid stores without photoperiodic responses, suggesting that tryptophan is involved in the physiological changes toward gyne under short daylength, independently of serotonin signaling. In conclusion, tyramine and tryptophan are candidates for mediating photoperiod-dependent caste-fate determination in P. jokahamae: the former is involved in generating the worker caste while the latter is involved in generating the gyne caste.

Biodiversity of the aculeate wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata) of the Arabian Peninsula: Vespoidea, Vespidae.

An updated checklist of the Arabian species of Vespidae is provided here. The list includes 163 identified species in 49 genera and four subfamilies: Eumeninae (41 genera, 130 species), Masarinae (4 genera, 14 species), Polistinae (3 genera, 17 species) and Vespinae (1 genus, 2 species). Distributions, both on the Peninsula and extra-limital, are provided for each species and subspecies; 53 species (33%) are endemic to the Arabian Peninsula, as are 15 subspecies. A new combination is proposed: Knemodynerus sauditus (Giordani Soika, 1989) comb. nov., transferred from Trachyodynerus Giordani Soika, 1989.

Additional knowledge respecting taxonomy of the social wasp genus Ropalidia (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae) from Vietnam, with new records of three species and an updated key to species.

Species composition of social wasps of the genus Ropalidia from Vietnam is reported, with 24 species having been recorded. Of those, three species are newly recorded for the Vietnamese fauna, namely Ropalidia binghami van der Vecht, 1941, R. parartifex Tan van Achterberg, 2014 and R. variegata (Smith, 1852). The presence of R. sumatrae (Weber, 1801) in Vietnam is confirmed. An updated key to all recorded species of the genus Ropalidia from Vietnam is also provided.

Complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the paper wasp Polistes riparius (Hymenoptera: Vespidae).

The paper wasp Polistes riparius is distributed in cold regions of northern East Asia to Russia. P. riparius are characterized by having longer cells than those of the closely related P. chinensis, which has a similar life history, as an adaptation to cold regions. The phylogenetic relationships of paper wasps have recently been studied; however, the genetic diversity and population structure of P. riparius has not been determined. The present study is the first to analyze the complete mitochondrial genome using next generation sequencing of P. riparius collected from Sapporo, Hokkaido Prefecture, Japan. The genome consisted of a closed loop that was 16,383 bp-long and included 13 protein coding genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, two rRNA genes, and one AT-rich control region. The average AT content was 84.54%. The heavy (H)-strand was predicted to have 12 PCGs and 14 tRNA genes, while the light (L)-strand was predicted to contain one PCGs, eight tRNA genes, and two rRNA genes. All PCGs started with ATG. Stop codons were of two types: TAA for 11 genes (ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4L, ND5, ND6, COXI, COXII, COXIII, COB, ATP6 and ATP8) and TAG for two genes (ND3 and ND4). The molecular phylogenetic relationship based on the maximum likelihood method using 13 PCGs was consistent with some previous studies in which a closely relationship between P. riparius and P. jokahamae.

Checklist of vespid wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) of Goa, India, with new records and a key to species.

This study on the vespid fauna (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) reports 33 species belonging to 22 genera and four subfamilies from the state of Goa, India. Of these, 26 species, 18 genera, and two subfamilies are newly recorded from Goa. Illustrated keys to the genera and species of vespid wasps of Goa along with notes on their geographical distribution are provided.

Revision of the species-group of Mischocyttarus (Omega) filiformis (de Saussure 1854), with description of three new species (Hymenoptera, Vespidae).

A taxonomic revision of the species-group related to M. filiformis (Saussure 1854) is presented along with an identification key to species. After Richards (1978) and following the rearrangement of the subgenus Omega de Saussure by Silveira (2008), the species-group considered herein included three species in addition to M. filiformis; i.e. M. buyssoni (Ducke 1906), M. napoensis Richards 1978 and M. omicron Richards 1978.  In the present work, three new species are added: M. nazgul sp. nov.; M. asahi sp. nov.; M. kallindusfloren sp. nov.; the male of M. filiformis is also described here in detail for the first time, and new distributional records are provided for the included species.

Keys to the Costa Rican species of paper wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae)

Paper wasps (subfamily Polistinae) are one of the four main groups of eusocial insects in the Neotropics. They are medically important for the frequent stings inflicted on humans, but at the same time are valuable predators of pest insects. Nonetheless, there are no updated keys for the identification of the Central American species. Here we provide keys to the 18 genera and 106 species known to occur in Costa Rica, illustrated with one hundred original line drawings.

Las avispas de la subfamilia Polistinae son uno de los cuatro grupos principales de insectos eusociales en el neotrópico, y son de importancia económica tanto por sus picaduras como por su papel en control biológico. Sin embargo, no existen claves actualizadas para la identificación de las especies de América Central. Aquí se proveen claves ilustradas para los 18 géneros y las 106 especies conocidas de Costa Rica y se incluyen cien dibujos originales.

Diversity of wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata: Vespidae) along an altitudinal gradient of Atlantic Forest in Itatiaia National Park, Brazil

ABSTRACT Surveying the diversity of stinging wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata) provides an important information base to assist in biodiversity conservation and the management of forest reserves, as wasps depend on and maintain the population balance of several other groups of insects. In accordance, this paper presents an altitudinal survey of wasps (Hymenoptera, Aculeata, Vespidae) in Itatiaia National Park, Brazil, which is a protected area covered by Atlantic Forest in a mountainous landscape, with altitudes ranging between 540 and 2791 metres above sea level. Six altitudinal zones were sampled with entomological net, and the abundance and diversity of the species were indicated by zones. Field sampling took 288 h of discontinuous activity, which was randomly conducted from December 2012 to December 2013. A total of 398 individuals belonging to 29 species and two subfamilies (Eumeninae and Polistinae) were sampled. Eight species are new records for the state of Rio de Janeiro. We found a monotonic decrease in wasp diversity in relation to altitude, and the number of captured individuals differed significantly between the low and high altitudes.

Description of the first endemic Polistes Latreille, 1802 from Sulawesi (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae).

A new species of Polistes Latreille, 1802 from Sulawesi, namely Polistes (Polistella) celebensis Selis, sp. nov., is described and figured. This is the first endemic species of this genus from Sulawesi.

Additions to knowledge of the paper wasp Polistes delhiensis Das and Gupta, 1989 (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae) from Vietnam with description of the male and nest.

Notes on the paper wasp of the genus Polistes, Polistes delhiensis Das and Gupta, 1989 (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae) from Vietnam are presented. The species has two color forms of the clypeus: brightly colored specimens were collected in the southern part of the range and darker colored specimens were collected in the northern part. Based on morphological and DNA data analysis, it is confirmed that both color forms belong to Polistes delhiensis. The male of this species is described for the first time and its fully-developed nest is also described.

Caste-fate determination primarily occurs after adult emergence in a primitively eusocial paper wasp: significance of the photoperiod during the adult stage.

Independent-founding paper wasps constitute a major group of primitively eusocial insects, and when caste-fate determination occurs in temperate species of these wasps, particularly regarding whether it occurs before or after emergence, remains unclear. No critical morphological differences occur between potential queens of the next generation (often called gynes) and workers in primitively eusocial insects. The gynes of temperate species are characterized by diapausing, and the nutrients available during the larval stage have often been believed to determine caste fate. Short days usually induce diapause in temperate nonsocial insects, although few investigations of the effects of day length on caste-fate determination in paper wasps have been conducted. By exposing individuals to different combinations of short and long days during the immature and adult stages, we show for the first time that short days during the adult stage (but not during the immature stage) facilitated caste-fate determination toward gynes in a paper wasp. Moreover, the decision to diapause partly depended on changes in the photoperiod during the pupal and adult stages. The size of the adult also affected caste-fate determination, with diapause more likely to occur in large adults, but this size effect did not occur when individuals were exposed to many short days during the pupal stage. In addition, all adults except for a small proportion of smaller individuals prepared for diapause under short days. These findings suggest that the photoperiod is a higher priority cue than adult size.

Revision of the genus Polistes Latreille (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Polistinae) in the Philippine Islands.

A taxonomic study on the paper wasp genus Polistes Latreille, 1802 from the Philippine Islands is presented. Three new species of the subgenus Polistella Ashmead, 1904 are described: P. (P.) esperanzae sp. nov., P. (P.) flavitarsis sp. nov., and P. (P.) tenuipunctatus sp. nov.. Polistes (Gyrostoma) tenebricosus nigrosericans Bequaert, 1940 is raised to species rank (P. (G.) nigrosericans stat. nov.). The Philippine subspecies of P. (P.) stigma (Fabricius, 1793) are synonymized under the typical form (= P. stigma alagari Petersen, 1987 syn. nov., = P. stigma dubius de Saussure, 1867 syn. nov., = P. stigma manillensis de Saussure, 1854 syn. nov.), and P. (P.) philippinensis funebris Bequaert, 1940 is synonymized under P. (P.) philippinensis de Saussure, 1854. A key to species of the genus from the Philippine Islands and new distributional records are provided.

The vespid fauna of Pakistan.

This study provides the first annotated check list of the Vespidae of Pakistan. It is based on the National Insect Museum collection and various studies in Pakistan. Among 105 identified taxa, 77 species and 28 subspecies are recorded in the four subfamilies Eumeninae, Masarinae, Polistinae and Vespinae. Three new records for the fauna of Pakistan are added, namely Anterhynchium mellyi, Antepipona ovalis and Eumenes coronatus coronatus. Among the total, 12 species/subspecies are endemic to Pakistan, namely Ancistrocerus pakistanus, Antepipona luteipes, Antodynerus flavescens karachiensis, Celonites nursei, Cyrtolabulus karachiensis, Eustenancistrocerus (Parastenancistrocerus) baluchistanensis, Katamenes dimidiatus watsoni, Knemodynerus lahorensis, Leptochilus (Neoleptochilus) hina, Leptochilus (Neoleptochilus) mirificus, Leptochilus (Neoleptochilus) umerolatus and Tachyancistrocerus pakistanus. Antepipona varentzowi (Morawitz, 1896) and Polistes rothneyi quatei van der Vecht, 1968 were incorrectly reported from Pakistan.

Observation of intra- and interspecific differences in the nest chemical profiles of social wasps (Hymenoptera: Polistinae) using infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy.

The aim of this study was to explore whether the nest chemical profile (NCP) can be used to determine intra- and interspecific differences in social wasps of the subfamily Polistinae. For this purpose, Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy (FTIR-PAS) was used to directly analyze small pieces of nest as well as the gasters of females. An advantage of the methodology was that no sample preparation was required. FTIR-PAS combined with multivariate discriminant analyzes was used, to the best of our knowledge for the first time, to evaluate the NCPs of six species of polistine wasps, observing the influence of the nesting environment and investigating the relationships among the nest and female cuticular chemical profiles. The results revealed significant inter-species differences among the NCPs, as well as strong correlations with the environments in which the nests were located. The Mischocyttarus and Polistes species belong to the same tribe (Polistini) and therefore exhibited similar NCPs. These species were separated from the Polybia species in the NCP dendrogram, mainly because the Polybia belong to another tribe (Epiponini). Correlation was observed between the NCPs and the cuticular chemical profiles of females. The findings of the study demonstrated the importance of the NCP for differentiation of species and environments, and the utility of FTIR-PAS for identification of correlations between individuals and nests. The results confirmed the hypothesis that the NCP can be used as an additional tool for intra- and interspecific differentiation in social wasps of the subfamily Polistinae.

Variation of cuticular chemical compounds in three species of Mischocyttarus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) eusocial wasps

Abstract The social wasps have a remarkable system of organization in which chemical communication mediate different behavioral interactions. Among the compounds involved in this process, cuticular hydrocarbons are considered the main signals for nestmate recognition, caste differentiation, and fertility communication. The aims of this study were to describe the cuticular chemical compounds of the species Mischocyttarus consimilis, Mischocyttarus bertonii, and Mischocyttarus latior, and to test whether these chemical compounds could be used to evaluate differences and similarities between Mischocyttarus species, using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Workers from these three species presented a variety of hydrocarbons ranging from C17 to C37, and among the compounds identified, the most representative were branched alkanes, linear alkanes and alkenes. The results revealed quantitative and qualitative differences among the hydrocarbon profiles, as confirmed by discriminant analysis. This study supports the hypothesis that cuticular chemical profiles can be used as parameters to identify interspecific and intercolony differences in Mischocyttarus, highlighting the importance of these compounds for differentiation of species and populations.

The predatory behavior of the Neotropical social wasp Polybia rejecta.

We experimentally studied the predatory behavior of Polybia rejecta (Vespidae, Polistinae, Epiponini) towards 2-88 mm-long insects attracted to a UV light trap. Foragers, which began to hunt at 6:30, selected 4-14 mm-long prey insects. Prey detection by sight by hovering wasps was confirmed using decoys. After the wasps landed and walked along a sinuous path, prey were detected by contact or from a distance (1-3cm). This was followed by seizure, stinging (contrarily to most other known cases), prey manipulation and retrieval. Prey that flew off might be caught in flight. The prey load, representing 30.7% of a forager's weight, was optimized by capturing up to six small prey or two medium-sized prey successively (both of which might be consumed in situ). The foragers cut off the wings of larger prey or cut them into two pieces and returned to gather the second piece. The handling time increased exponentially with the weight of the prey. Partial loading (i.e., retrieving a load much inferior to the maximum possible) was likely related to social facilitation, a form of nest-based recruitment that was demonstrated through the experimental elimination of local enhancement by removing foragers (both mechanisms favor the exploitation of favorable patches).

Integrated Analyses of Cuticular Hydrocarbons, Chromosome and mtDNA in the Neotropical Social Wasp Mischocyttarus consimilis Zikán (Hymenoptera, Vespidae).

In the present work, we explored multiple data from different biological levels such as cuticular hydrocarbons, chromosomal features, and mtDNA sequences in the Neotropical social wasp Mischocyttarus consimilis (J.F. Zikán). Particularly, we explored the genetic and chemical differentiation level within and between populations of this insect. Our dataset revealed shallow intraspecific differentiation in M. consimilis. The similarity among the analyzed samples can probably be due to the geographical proximity where the colonies were sampled, and we argue that Paraná River did not contribute effectively as a historical barrier to this wasp.