Development and Validation of the Maternal Drinking Motives Scale (M-DMS).

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use is a gendered behavior and motherhood is a life stage which may influence drinking motives. However, there are no drinking motive scales uniquely tailored to maternal populations. This work developed a new maternal drinking motives scale (M-DMS) and determined associations between the M-DMS and alcohol-related behavior. METHODS: An online observational survey (n = 534) and online test-retest survey (n = 164) were conducted with adult, UK mothers. From the observational study, data on drinking motives was extracted to determine M-DMS items and factor loading. This was split into two data sets for exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and Timeline Follow back data, taken from both surveys, were combined to determine the M-DMS's predictive validity. RESULTS: Following a parallel analysis and exploratory factor analysis, a two-factor model (positive reinforcement motives, negative reinforcement motives) was deemed the best fit. Probability functional analysis identified items with problematic responses. These were removed before confirmatory factor analysis (on the second dataset) demonstrated a good fit for the two-factor model. All factor loadings were significant and positive (ßs > 0.56). Reliability of the two subscales was excellent: negative reinforcement (ωT = 0.95), positive reinforcement (ωT = 0.89). Test-retest reliability was good for both negative (ICC = 0.84, 95%CI = 0.80-0.88) and positive (ICC = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.71-0.82) subscales. Both subscales predicted AUDIT and quantity of alcohol consumption (ps < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The first tailored Maternal Drinking Motives Scale (M-DMS) provides a more valid research tool for assessing psychological mechanisms of alcohol use in mothers.

An Integrative Approach to the Study of Cognitive Abilities in a Non-Human Primate Model in a Virology Laboratory Environment.

Non-human primates, due to their similarities in immune response to humans, are the preferred model for studying infectious processes and any associated cognitive impairments. Behavioral tests are indispensable for investigating pathogenesis in neuroinfections, especially those that do not manifest with noticeable clinical symptoms, as well as in the transition to a chronic form of the disease. Modeling viral infection requires specialized experimental conditions. Our work describes techniques for investigating mnemonic functions, tiredness, attentional focus, quick-wittedness, and basic behavioral responses in primates under the assumed conditions for infections with viruses that do not have an airborne route of transmission. It also outlines approaches to the training and selection of primates for virological research, as well as analyzing gender differences in learning abilities, the impact of housing conditions on the results, and the correlation between training success and behavioral test scores. These methods will allow a more detailed study of non-human primates as a model for researching cognitive and behavioral impairments under infectious and immune stress, as well as the design of less energy-intensive experiments for evaluating the efficacy and safety of therapeutic and prophylactic strategies at early stages of infection.

From an Open Bite to a Harmonious Smile: Orthodontic Intervention With Bluegrass Appliance and Tongue Thrust Resolution.

The tongue-thrusting habit significantly contributes to the development of the anterior open bite (AOB), particularly when an infantile swallowing pattern persists into the later stages of childhood and adolescence. This habit results in the protrusion of the anterior teeth. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying causes, incorporating retraining exercises, and utilizing mechanical appliances to control tongue positioning. However, commonly used devices such as palatal cribs or spurs may present challenges, including speech impediments, chewing difficulties, and the potential for unintended injuries. This paper presents a case report detailing the treatment of a patient with an AOB, dental protrusion, and spacing. The treatment approach included the application of a fixed tongue trainer, in the form of a modified bluegrass appliance. Subsequent fixed orthodontic therapy was employed to rectify proclined teeth within the dental arch.

Participation in a Prison-Based Training Programme Is Beneficial for Rescue Dogs.

Dogs are often relinquished because of behavioural issues which may be exacerbated in rehoming centres. Prison-based dog training programmes (DTPs) may enhance outcomes for rescue dogs by providing socialisation and training opportunities to improve behaviour, welfare and likelihood of rehoming. We assessed whether dogs benefitted from participation, 1-3 times per week, in a prison-based DTP in which male young offenders learn how to train and care for dogs waiting to be rehomed. Within DTP sessions, there was significant improvement on a range of training tasks (n = 42 dogs). Analyses of videos (n = 17 dogs) in the kennels and a training barn pre- and post-DTP participation showed improvement in some positive behaviours, but no significant change in other behaviours. Subjective ratings by staff of the dogs' behaviour were made (n = 20 dogs). Desirable behaviours (e.g., playful/friendly) increased, and most undesirable behaviours (e.g., frustrated and noisy) decreased. Participation in the DTP did not mitigate all negative behaviours. However, improvements are consistent with enhanced welfare and likelihood of successful rehoming. Prison-based DTPs can be effective in supporting the work of animal rescue organisations to improve outcomes for dogs, while offering people in custody an opportunity to engage in purposeful activity and provide a community service.

Sheep (Ovis aries) training protocol for voluntary awake and unrestrained structural brain MRI acquisitions.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive technique that requires the participant to be completely motionless. To date, MRI in awake and unrestrained animals has only been achieved with humans and dogs. For other species, alternative techniques such as anesthesia, restraint and/or sedation have been necessary. Anatomical and functional MRI studies with sheep have only been conducted under general anesthesia. This ensures the absence of movement and allows relatively long MRI experiments but it removes the non-invasive nature of the MRI technique (i.e., IV injections, intubation). Anesthesia can also be detrimental to health, disrupt neurovascular coupling, and does not permit the study of higher-level cognition. Here, we present a proof-of-concept that sheep can be trained to perform a series of tasks, enabling them to voluntarily participate in MRI sessions without anesthesia or restraint. We describe a step-by-step training protocol based on positive reinforcement (food and praise) that could be used as a basis for future neuroimaging research in sheep. This protocol details the two successive phases required for sheep to successfully achieve MRI acquisitions of their brain. By providing structural brain MRI images from six out of ten sheep, we demonstrate the feasibility of our training protocol. This innovative training protocol paves the way for the possibility of conducting animal welfare-friendly functional MRI studies with sheep to investigate ovine cognition.

Validation of a Behavioral Activation Model Including Self-Compassion: A Longitudinal Study at Three Time Points.

INTRODUCTION: Depression is highly prevalent among university students. While behavioral activation has been shown to be an effective psychotherapy for depression, there is a lack of research regarding the behavioral activation mechanism. Furthermore, although self-compassion seems to be a factor in promoting behavioral activation, no studies have attempted to validate a behavioral activation model that includes positive self-compassion. In addition, mechanistic studies have lacked consideration in longitudinal studies of behavioral activation. Thus, in this longitudinal study, we constructed and validated an exploratory model of behavioral activation. METHODS: A total of 300 undergraduate students completed online surveys in 2019, 2020, and 2021. We examined the longitudinal effects of five factors (value-based behavior, goal-oriented and scheduled activities, positive reinforcement, self-compassion, and depressive symptoms) using structural equation modeling based on maximum likelihood estimation using bootstrapping. RESULTS: The exploratory model was found to be valid and to have a good fit with the data. The results indicate that value-based behaviors increase the frequency of goal-oriented and scheduled activities, which in turn increases the frequency of positive reinforcement in everyday life. Additionally, when self-compassion, value-based behavior, goal-oriented and scheduled activities, and positive reinforcement are considered together, self-compassion may be indirectly related to activation via value-based behavior. CONCLUSION: From the perspective of preventing depressive symptoms, it is important to increase the frequency of value-based activities. Furthermore, adding self-compassion is effective in behavioral activation to increase value-based activities. However, to address the limitations of this study, future studies should investigate the relationship among behavioral characteristics during interventions.

Potential Food Inclination of Crab-Eating Macaques in Laboratory Environments: Enhancing Positive Reinforcement Training and Health Optimization.

Positive reinforcement and training for health optimization are pivotal for successful studies with monkeys. Potential food inclination is important for studies on crab-eating macaques in laboratory environments, but evaluations remain scarce. We explored crab-eating macaques' potential food inclination to establish a reward system for future behavioral assessments. Twelve male and three female monkeys underwent a food inclination assessment in which they were offered four food categories-fruits, vegetables, proteins, and nuts. The monkeys exhibited a higher inclination for plant-based foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, over animal-based proteins like chicken and tuna (p < 0.0001), with a notable inclination for nuts (eaten/provided = 100%). Additionally, the consistency of potential food inclination after repeated offerings was investigated, revealing a time-dependent increase in inclination for protein items. Food consumption ratios correlated positively with caloric intake (r = 0.59, p = 0.02), implying that individuals with a regular high caloric intake and increased body weight are more likely to accept food during positive reinforcement training. Our findings suggest fruits, vegetables, protein-rich foods, and nuts can help with health optimization. However, animal-based protein-rich foods initially had a low preference, which may increase over time. Our study can provide guidelines for positive reinforcement training and health optimization.

Generalization and Discrimination of Positively Reinforced Explicit Mands in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Many children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit generalization errors following mand training. In this study, we extended the literature on the generalization of positively reinforced explicit mands in three young children with ASD and complex communication needs. First, we used mand training to teach a new, socially appropriate, positively reinforced explicit mand to request preferred toys. Second, we assessed the discriminated generalization of the newly acquired mand by using untrained examples and nonexamples. Results suggest that our mand training resulted in acquisition of a discriminated positively reinforced explicit mand in all three children. Overgeneralization was documented for one of the three children included in the study. We discuss implications for researchers and practitioners related to the importance of assessing for generalization errors following mand training.

Aberrant reward learning, but not negative reinforcement learning, is related to depressive symptoms: an attentional perspective.

BACKGROUND: Aberrant reward functioning is implicated in depression. While attention precedes behavior and guides higher-order cognitive processes, reward learning from an attentional perspective - the effects of prior reward-learning on subsequent attention allocation - has been mainly overlooked. METHODS: The present study explored the effects of reward-based attentional learning in depression using two separate, yet complimentary, studies. In study 1, participants with high (HD) and low (LD) levels of depression symptoms were trained to divert their gaze toward one type of stimuli over another using a novel gaze-contingent music reward paradigm - music played when fixating the desired stimulus type and stopped when gazing the alternate one. Attention allocation was assessed before, during, and following training. In study 2, using negative reinforcement, the same attention allocation pattern was trained while substituting the appetitive music reward for gazing the desired stimulus type with the removal of an aversive sound (i.e. white noise). RESULTS: In study 1 both groups showed the intended shift in attention allocation during training (online reward learning), while generalization of learning at post-training was only evident among LD participants. Conversely, in study 2 both groups showed post-training generalization. Results were maintained when introducing anxiety as a covariate, and when using a more powerful sensitivity analysis. Finally, HD participants showed higher learning speed than LD participants during initial online learning, but only when using negative, not positive, reinforcement. CONCLUSIONS: Deficient generalization of learning characterizes the attentional system of HD individuals, but only when using reward-based positive reinforcement, not negative reinforcement.

Clicker Training as an Applied Refinement Measure in Chickens.

When using chickens in animal studies, the handling of these animals for sample collection or general examinations is considered stressful due to their prey nature. For the study presented here, plasma and salivary corticosterone as well as New Area Test behavior and fecal output were used to evaluate whether it is possible to influence this stress perception using a three-week clicker training program. The results indicate that clicker training seems to be a suitable refinement measure in the sense of cognitive enrichment for the husbandry of this species. However, since it was also shown that three-week training was not sufficient to sustainably reduce the stress perception with regard to prolonged stressor exposure, and since it was also evident that manipulations such as routine blood sampling are perceived as less stressful than assumed, further studies with prolonged training intervals and situations with higher stressor potential are warranted. Also, further parameters for training assessment must be considered. For the general use of training as a supportive measure in animal experiments, its proportionality must be considered, particularly considering the expected stress and adequate training time.

Psychometric properties of the Reward Probability Index in a Colombian sample / Propiedades psicométricas del Índice de Probabilidad de Recompensa en una muestra Colombiana

Introduction: This study analysed the psychometric properties of the Reward Probability Index (RPI) in an online Colombian sample with 1129 participants. Method: To conduct a cross-validation study, the sample was randomly divided into two subsamples. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted with the first subsample yielding a two-factor structure. Then, the fit of this two-factor model was tested on the second subsample by conducting a confirmatory factor analysis. Results: This model obtained a good fit to the data and measurement invariance across gender was observed. The RPI also showed good internal consistency according to both Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega, scoring .88 in both cases. The RPI demonstrated convergent construct validity given its correlations with other related measures such as the Environmental Reward Observation Scale (r = .81), and the full version of the Behavioral Activation Scale for Depression (r = .71). Conclusions: The RPI showed good psychometric properties in this Colombian sample.

Introducción: Este artículo tuvo como objetivo analizar las propiedades psicométricas del Índice de Probabilidad de Recompensa (RPI) en una muestra colombiana en línea con 1129 participantes. Método: Para realizar un estudio de validación cruzada, la muestra se dividió aleatoriamente en dos submuestras. Se realizó un análisis factorial exploratorio con la primera submuestra que arrojó una estructura de dos factores. Luego, se probó el ajuste de este modelo de dos factores en la segunda submuestra mediante la realización de un análisis factorial confirmatorio. Resultados: Este modelo obtuvo un buen ajuste a los datos y se observó invarianza de medida entre sexos. El RPI también mostró buena consistencia interna según el alfa de Cronbach y el omega de McDonald (.88 en ambos casos) y validez de constructo convergente dadas las correlaciones con otras medidas relacionadas como la Escala de Observación de Recompensa Ambiental (r = .81), y la versión de la Escala de Activación Conductual para la Depresión (r = .71). Conclusiones: el RPI mostró buenas propiedades psicométricas en esta muestra colombiana.

Identifying the Most Effective Recruitment Strategy Using Financial Reimbursements for a Web-Based Peer Network Study With Young People Aged 16-18 Years: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Peers are an important determinant of health and well-being during late adolescence; however, there is limited quantitative research examining peer influence. Previous peer network research with adolescents faced methodological limitations and difficulties recruiting young people. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to determine whether a web-based peer network survey is effective at recruiting adolescent peer networks by comparing 2 strategies for reimbursement. METHODS: This study will use a 2-group randomized trial design to test the effectiveness of reimbursements for peer referral in a web-based cross-sectional peer network survey. Young people aged 16-18 years recruited through Instagram, Snapchat, and a survey panel will be randomized to receive either scaled group reimbursement (the experimental group) or fixed individual reimbursement (the control group). All participants will receive a reimbursement of Aus $5 (US $3.70) for their own survey completion. In the experimental group (scaled group reimbursement), all participants within a peer network will receive an additional Aus $5 (US $3.70) voucher for each referred participant who completes the study, up to a maximum total value of Aus $30 (US $22.20) per participant. In the control group (fixed individual reimbursement), participants will only be reimbursed for their own survey completion. Participants' peer networks are assessed during the survey by asking about their close friends. A unique survey link will be generated to share with the participant's nominated friends for the recruitment of secondary participants. Outcomes are the proportion of a participant's peer network and the number of referred peers who complete the survey. The required sample size is 306 primary participants. Using a multilevel logistic regression model, we will assess the effect of the reimbursement intervention on the proportion of primary participants' close friends who complete the survey. The secondary aim is to determine participant characteristics that are associated with successfully recruiting close friends. Young people aged 16-18 years were involved in the development of the study design through focus groups and interviews (n=26). RESULTS: Participant recruitment commenced in 2022. CONCLUSIONS: A longitudinal web-based social network study could provide important data on how social networks and their influence change over time. This trial aims to determine whether scaled group reimbursement can increase the number of peers referred. The outcomes of this trial will improve the recruitment of young people to web-based network studies of sensitive health issues. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/44813.

Handling and Training of Wild Animals: Evidence and Ethics-Based Approaches and Best Practices in the Modern Zoo.

There is an ethical responsibility to provide all animals living in human care with optimal and positive well-being. As animals living in zoos and aquariums frequently interact with their human caregivers as part of their daily care routines, it is both relevant and essential to consider the impact of these interactions on animal well-being. Allowing animals to have choice and control in multiple areas of their lives, such as by providing opportunities for them to voluntarily participate in their own care through, for example, positive reinforcement training, is an essential component of good animal well-being programs. This review aims to describe evidence-based approaches, ethics, and best practices in the handling and training of the many taxa held in zoos and aquariums worldwide, drawing from work in related animal care fields such as laboratories, farms, rescue, and sanctuaries. The importance of ongoing animal well-being assessments is discussed, with a particular focus on the need for continued review and refinement of processes and procedures pertaining to animal training and handling specifically. Review, enquiry, assessment, evaluation, and refinement will aim to dynamically support positive well-being for all animals.

Significant others and students' leisure-time physical activity intention: A prospective test of the social influence in sport model.

This two-wave prospective study applied the Social Influence in Sport Model to investigate whether the social influences of parents, physical education (PE) teachers, and peers were predictive of students' intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity (PA). Participants were 2,484 secondary school students (11-18 years old) who completed a questionnaire assessing positive influence, punishment, and dysfunction from the three social agents (parents, PE teachers, and peers) at baseline, and PA intention at a 1-month follow-up. Structural equation modelling (SEM) yielded excellent goodness-of-fit and consistent pathways between the three social agents. Students' leisure-time PA intention (R2 = .103 to 0.112) was positively associated with positive influence (ß = .223 to 0.236, p < .001) and punishment (ß = .214 to 0.256, p < .01), and negatively associated with dysfunction (ß = - 0.281 to -.335, p < .001). Multi-group SEM showed that the predictions were invariant between parents, PE teachers, and peers. Furthermore, no significant differences in students' gender were found between perceived social influence and PA intention. The findings supported the application of the Social Influence in Sport Model in explaining the role of significant others on students' intention to take part in leisure-time PA.

FELASA recommendations for the rehoming of animals used for scientific and educational purposes.

Directive 2010/63/EU of the European Parliament and the Council of 22 September 2010 states that at the end of a procedure, the most appropriate decision on the future of an animal previously used or intended for use in scientific procedures should be taken on the basis of animal welfare and potential risks to the environment. Member States may allow animals to be rehomed provided the health of the animal allows it, there is no danger to public health, animal health or the environment and if appropriate measures have been taken to safeguard the wellbeing of the animal. In countries where rehoming is permitted, it is the responsibility of the Animal Welfare Body to advise on a rehoming scheme which must include appropriate socialization in order to help facilitate successful rehoming, avoid unnecessary distress to the animals and guarantee public safety. This paper reviews the EU legislation, existing guidance, current literature and best practice to define rehoming, sets out general considerations for rehoming laboratory animals including socialization and provides practical advice on the steps required in a rehoming scheme. For those species most frequently rehomed, more detailed species-specific sections are included.

Problematic social media use is statistically predicted by using social media for coping motives and by positive reinforcement processes in individuals with high COVID-19-related stress levels.

It is important to understand the relationship between stress and problematic use of social media (PUSM). However, no study to our knowledge has yet investigated the longitudinal relationship between perceived stress and PUSM via positive and negative reinforcement processes. The present study investigated relationships between COVID-19-pandemic-related stress and PUSM and possible moderating effects of motives for using social media (positive and/or negative reinforcement) during and following a COVID-19-pandemic-related lockdown. Six-hundred-and-sixty participants initially completed a survey including self-report measures of PUSM, COVID-19-pandemic-related stress, and motives for using social media (i.e., for negative reinforcement involving coping and conformity or positive reinforcements involving enhancement and social motives). During the COVID-19 outbreak recovery period, 117 participants again completed the survey. Bayesian analyses revealed that PUSM was associated with higher COVID-19-pandemic-related stress levels and use of social media for coping, conformity, and enhancement purposes. Longitudinally, PUSM symptom worsening was associated with increased use of social media for coping motives regardless of levels of perceived stress. Use of social media for conformity and enhancement purposes moderated relationships between stress levels during lockdown and PUSM symptoms worsening after lockdown. Our findings corroborate the hypothesis that negative reinforcement processes may be key factors in PUSM symptom worsening regardless of perceived stress. Concurrently, high levels of stress may worsen PUSM through positive reinforcement processes.

Determining the preferred liquid reward in adult C57BL/6 mice.

Using food rewards to motivate mice is commonplace in behavioural research. Using a reward which is highly desirable is of benefit, as it can reduce the need to food restrict animals and can encourage higher levels of consumption, allowing for changes in levels of consumption following an intervention to be easily determined. Here, we aimed to determine the preferred milk reward for adult male C57Bl/6 mice. Thirty male C57Bl/6 mice were provided with soya milk, chocolate milk, almond milk or water for a four-hour period in a cross-over design. When planning studies that involve the use of a palatable liquid reward, soya milk is the preferred option for adult male C57BL/6 mice. Providing a liquid reward of high value will give increased levels of consumption, with little or no food restriction required.

Increasing water intake and walking with a self-management intervention using negative and positive reinforcement.

Introduction: This study compared the effectiveness of different types of reinforcement (positive, negative, and a combination of both) in a self-management intervention program designed to increase water intake and walking. Methods: Four university students participated in a self-management program to increase water intake and walking. Multiple baseline design across behaviors that included baseline (A) condition, positive reinforcement (B) condition, negative reinforcement (C) condition, and combination of both (B + C), was introduced. The participants received $2 every day they met the criteria during the positive reinforcement condition and no consequence if they failed to meet the criteria. In the negative reinforcement condition, $2 was subtracted for each day that the participant did not meet the criteria from the total amount of money available to the participant during that phase of the study. During the condition with positive and negative reinforcement, the participants received $2 every day they met the criteria. However, $2 was subtracted from the total for every day they did not meet the criteria. Results: There was a clear increase from baseline to the first intervention phase across all the behaviors and participants, and the increase was maintained throughout the study. There were no differences in the effectiveness of different types of reinforcement applied in self-management intervention programs. Conclusions: The study did show that implementing a relatively low-cost reinforcement contingency increased both exercise and water drinking. The results suggest that there are no consistent differences in the effectiveness of positive or negative reinforcement contingencies in self-management intervention.

Pet Owner Perception of Ferret Boredom and Consequences for Housing, Husbandry, and Environmental Enrichment.

Boredom is a potential chronic but overlooked animal welfare problem. Caused by monotony, sub-optimal stimulation, and restrictive housing, boredom can therefore affect companion animals, particularly those traditionally caged, such as ferrets. We surveyed owners' (n = 621) perceptions of ferrets' capacity to experience boredom, behaviours they associate with it, and whether their perception of their ferrets' capacity for boredom influenced training techniques, housing, and environmental enrichment (EE). Most (93.0%) owners believed that ferrets could experience boredom, but owners who doubted that ferrets experience boredom (7.0%) provided slightly but significantly fewer EE types to their ferrets. Heat map and classification tree analysis showed that owners identified scratching at enclosure walls (n = 420) and excessive sleeping (n = 312) as distinctive behavioural indicators of ferret boredom. Repetitive pacing (n = 381), yawning (n = 191), and resting with eyes open (n = 171) were also suggested to indicate ferret boredom, but these overlapped with other states. Finally, ferret owners suggested social housing, tactile interaction with humans, and exploration as most important for preventing boredom. These results suggest that pet ferrets are at risk of reduced welfare from owners who doubt they can experience boredom, highlighting an opportunity to improve welfare through information dissemination. We recommend further investigation into ferret boredom capacity, behavioural indicators, and mitigation strategies.