Adenocarcinoma of the distal esophagus and esophageal-proventricular junction in a yellow-naped parrot.

A 57-y-old male yellow-naped parrot (Amazona auropalliata) was presented because of lethargy, inappetence, and weight loss. Hematology and serum biochemistry were unremarkable, and imaging revealed a mass in the distal esophagus at the coelomic inlet. The luminal diameter of the esophagus was reduced in this area, and passage of ingesta was limited. Following gavage feeding, the patient died and was submitted for autopsy. At postmortem examination, the noted mass effect was a thickening of the distal esophagus with adherent, coalescing, soft, pale-tan plaques on the mucosal surface. Additional gross findings included pale-tan, opaque feed material oozing from the dorsum of the lungs and covering the cranial air sacs. Histology of the esophagus, esophageal-proventricular junction, and proximal proventriculus revealed an unencapsulated, infiltrative, transmural neoplasm that extended from the mucosal surface deep into the muscularis, almost to the adventitia. The neoplasm was composed of cuboidal cells arranged in islands and tubules, consistent with an adenocarcinoma, a rarely reported entity in the esophagus of psittacine birds and to our knowledge not reported previously at the esophageal-proventricular junction.

Retrospective evaluation of voriconazole treatment in psittacines: 14 cases (2012-2023).

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively evaluate the clinical use of voriconazole in psittacine patients for the treatment of suspected respiratory fungal infections. ANIMALS: 14 client-owned psittacine birds. METHODS: Medical records were searched from 2012 to 2023 for voriconazole use in psittacines. Species, age, clinical signs, physical examination findings, CT reports, bloodwork results, treatment, and outcome were obtained from the records or client follow-up. RESULTS: African grey parrots were the most prevalent species (8/14). Dyspnea (9/14) and abnormal respiratory auscultation (11/14) were the most common examination abnormalities. An initial CT was performed in all cases, and pneumonia (10/14) and air sac disease (9/14) were the most common findings, with 8 cases having both pulmonary and air sac disease. Voriconazole doses ranged from 10 to 21 mg/kg (median, 16 mg/kg), with most cases prescribed as every-12-hour frequency (12/14). Three of 14 (21%) cases died or were euthanized within 24 days of diagnosis. One case was euthanized at 311 days, and 6 cases were lost to follow-up. Four of 14 (29%) cases lived > 12 months from diagnosis. Two of these cases cleared clinical infection after receiving voriconazole at 17 to 18 mg/kg (q 12 h). No adverse effects attributable to voriconazole were reported. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Voriconazole can be safely used for the treatment of suspected fungal respiratory infection in psittacines. However, the prognosis for resolution is guarded, and prolonged treatment and repeated diagnostic imaging are necessary in many cases.

Isoflurane anesthesia alters complete blood count values in lilac-crowned parrots (Amazona finschi).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of a chemical restraint with isoflurane compared to a physical restraint in hemogram values in psittacines. ANIMALS: 21 adult lilac-crowned parrots (Amazona finschi). METHODS: Subjects were physically restrained for blood sample collection, after this isoflurane anesthesia was administered for 30 minutes at which time a second blood sample was taken. Hemogram values were compared between both samples using a t test in variables with normal distribution and a Wilcoxon test in variables without normal distribution. Statistical significance was established at P < .05. RESULTS: When comparing the analytes of the respective CBCs, a decrease in PCV (P < .001), RBC count (P < .001), WBC count (P = .017), absolute lymphocytes (P = .024), and total proteins (P < .001) was observed in the samples taken under chemical restraint. No significant differences in MCV and absolute values of heterophils, monocytes, or eosinophils were observed. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Isoflurane causes a decrease in some blood count values in lilac-crowned parrots under isoflurane anesthesia for 30 minutes. Although the magnitude of change could be variable between values, it is important to consider the blood collection method when interpreting the blood count in this species.

Pathological findings and their association with diseases of captive psittacine birds native to Mexico.

The captivity and use of native psittacine birds is prohibited in Mexico. However, as these birds are among the groups most affected by illegal trafficking, they are commonly found as companion animals. Nevertheless, it is difficult to obtain information on their health. Therefore, a retrospective study was conducted of the clinical histories and necropsy reports of native psittacines that had been submitted to the Bird Disease Diagnostic and Research Laboratory of the Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, from 2006 to 2017. The lesions were classified according to type and anatomical location and the diseases were classified as infectious or non-infectious. During this period, 252 psittacines were submitted, the most frequent of which were the red-lored parrot (Amazona autumnalis), orange-fronted parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis) and scarlet macaw (Ara macao). The lesions were primarily located in the digestive and respiratory systems. By integrating the clinical histories and post-mortem findings, we concluded that nutritional disorders were the most frequent non-infectious diseases, systemic bacterial infections were the most frequent infectious conditions, the primary parasite was Sarcocystis spp and the most frequent neoplasm was multicentric lymphoma.

Carrageenan-induced inflammation elicits behavioral changes in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) for potential pain scale development.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate behaviors associated with inflammatory pain induced by carrageenan injection in the cockatiel and determine interobserver agreement. ANIMALS: 16 adult cockatiels. METHODS: Cockatiels were randomly assigned as either treatment (carrageenan injection) or control (sham injection) group. The treatment group received a subcutaneous injection of 0.05 mL of a 1% lambda carrageenan solution into the left footpad. Following treatment or control procedures, all cockatiels were video recorded individually for 9.5 hours. Ten minutes of video at each of 11 time points postinjection and/or handling were evaluated by 3 different observers. Twenty-five behaviors within 6 categories (resting, locomotion, maintenance, intake, interaction with environment, and limb and body posture) were assessed, in addition to crest position and mentation. Differences in individual behaviors tallies were assessed using serial Wilcoxon sum rank tests. Interobserver agreement was assessed using an intraclass correlation coefficient for a 2-way design for consistency among multiple observers. RESULTS: Treatment cockatiels exhibited significantly increased focal preening (q = .023) and increased burst preening (q = .036), while control cockatiels spent significantly more time in an upright stance (q = .036). Although the remainder of behaviors observed were not statistically significant between groups, additional variables of interest seen more frequently in treatment cockatiels included non-weight-bearing stance, holding of the body low, and being nonvigilant. The level of agreement between observers was variable based on the specific behaviors; nevertheless, the dynamic behaviors were substantial to strong. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Carrageenan-induced inflammation-associated behaviors may be valuable in developing a pain scale and evaluating mild inflammatory pain in small psittacine species.

Recent developments in parrot cognition: a quadrennial update.

Psittacines, along with corvids, are commonly referred to as 'feathered apes' due to their advanced cognitive abilities. Until rather recently, the research effort on parrot cognition was lagging behind that on corvids, however current developments show that the number of parrot studies is steadily increasing. In 2018, M. L. Lambert et al. provided a comprehensive review on the status of the most important work done so far in parrot and corvid cognition. Nevertheless, only a little more than 4 years after this publication, more than 50 new parrot studies have been published, some of them chartering completely new territory. On the 25th anniversary of Animal Cognition we think this warrants a detailed review of parrot cognition research over the last 4 years. We aim to capture recent developments and current trends in this rapidly expanding and diversifying field.

Verification of accuracy of qPCR method for intravital diagnostics of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in avian droppings.

The objective of this study was to verify the accuracy of the quantitative PCR (qPCR) method for in vivo detection of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster. A total of 100 faecal and gastric mucosa samples from avian cadavers were investigated, using cytological and qPCR techniques (budgerigars, Fischer's lovebirds, red-crowned parakeets, scarlet-chested parrots, eastern rosellas, domestic canaries, zebra finches, white Java sparrow). Using qPCR, the probability of detecting positive samples of droppings was significantly higher than in the faecal smear microscopy (P < 0.01). Cytology detected the presence of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in 34 faecal samples, whereas qPCR detected 54 positive samples. In all 46 qPCR negative faecal samples, gastric smear qPCR was performed and also yielded negative results. Gastric smear qPCR was also performed in 20 cadavers where faecal qPCR has detected the presence of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster and in all samples confirmed the positive result. This verifies the accuracy of faecal sample qPCR for intravital diagnostics. Overall, the faecal qPCR technique appears to be extremely reliable, as it made it possible to detect all infected individuals, including those with negative stool or gastric cytology.

Novel adenoviruses from captive psittacine birds in Slovenia.

To assess the prevalence of adenoviruses in psittacine birds kept in Slovenia, 258 cloacal swabs were collected from different psittacine species and screened by a nested PCR with degenerate, consensus primers targeting the adenoviral DNA polymerase gene. Forty-two samples were found to be positive. By sequencing, 28 samples from 10 different parrot species were identified as the formerly described siadenovirus, psittacine adenovirus 2 (PsAdV-2). A second siadenovirus, a variant of PsAdV-5 (described earlier from Pacific parrotlet, sun parakeet, cockatiel and budgerigar) was found in seven budgerigars, two cockatiels and an amazon parrot species. A variant of Meyer's parrot adenovirus (aviadenovirus, proposed PsAdV-8) was identified in an African grey parrot and a cockatiel. Two novel atadenoviruses were revealed in cockatiel (PsAdV-9) and rose-ringed parakeet (PsAdV-10). These results support the earlier finding that many PsAdVs can cross the species barrier among psittacines, especially effectively in the case of PsAdV-2.

Experimental Infection of Embryonic Cells and Embryonated Eggs of Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) with Two Parrot Bornavirus Isolates (PaBV-4 and PaBV-2).

Parrot bornavirus (PaBV) might be transmitted vertically. Cockatiel embryonic brain cells and embryonated eggs of cockatiels (ECE) were infected with PaBV-2 and PaBV-4. In embryonic brain cells, PaBV-2 and PaBV-4 showed no differences in viral spread despite the slower growth of PaBV-2 compared with PaBV-4 in CEC-32 cells. ECE were inoculated with PaBV-4 and 13-14 dpi, organs were sampled for RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry/histology, and virus isolation. In 28.1% of the embryos PaBV-4-RNA and in 81.3% PaBV-4-antigen was detected in the brain. Virus isolation failed. Division of organ samples and uneven tissue distribution of the virus limited the results. Therefore, 25 ECE were inoculated with PaBV-4 (group 1) and 15 ECE with PaBV-2 (group 3) in the yolk sac, and 25 ECE were inoculated with PaBV-4 (group 2) and 15 eggs with PaBV-2 (group 4) in the chorioallantoic membrane to use the complete organs from each embryo for each examination method. PaBV-RNA was detected in the brain of 80% of the embryos in groups 1, 2, 3 and in 100% of the embryos in group 4. In 90% of the infected embryos of group 1, and 100% of group 2, 3 and 4, PaBV antigen was detected in the brain. PaBV antigen-positive brain cells were negative for anti-neuronal nuclear protein, anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein, and anti S-100 staining. Virus was not re-isolated. These results demonstrated a specific distribution pattern and spread of PaBV-4 and PaBV-2 in the brain when inoculated in ECE. These findings support a potential for vertical transmission.

Recognition and Assessment of Pain-Related Behaviors in Avian Species: An Integrative Review.

The appropriate recognition and assessment of pain in animals is an essential tool that can be used by veterinary professionals, rehabilitators, household caregivers, and others to provide supportive care and analgesia to patients. Although the use of behavioral, postural, and facial changes to recognize pain have been studied in popular domestic species such as dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), cats (Felis catus), and rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), very little is known relative to avian species. The purpose of this article is to provide a literature review comprising structured searches on the topic of avian pain recognition. The emphasis of the searches were based on the behavioral and postural alterations that have thus far been explored. The literature review was performed in the months of August-September 2020 over 5 online databases: MEDLINE/ PubMed, CAB Direct, Biosis, Zoological Record, and Scopus. Additional "snowballing" was incorporated by looking at the references and articles that cited the 126 articles from the initial abstract and full-text screening. Of the 194 full-text articles reviewed, 132 sources of literature were included in the final analysis. From these 132 sources of literature, 31.8% were general review articles in which avian pain behaviors were described irrespective of species, with others being specific to a particular species (chickens 47.8%, turkeys 7.6%, parrots 3.8%, pigeons [Columba livia] 3%, raptors 3%, and "other" 3%-2 on ducks, 1 on emus [Dromaius novaehollandiae], and 1 on Eurasian blue tits [Cyanistes caeruleus]). Pain stimulus varied depending on species, although the vast majority of the pain stimuli involved welfare issues such as beak trimming, limb abnormalities, and keel bone fractures in chickens. Although information regarding this topic remains limited for many avian species, this review provides a more thorough understanding of behavioral indicators of pain in species such as chickens, turkeys, psittacines, pigeons, raptors, and select others. It is the hope that this review will motivate further interest and future analgesia research for the improvement of avian welfare.

Apparent Lack of Circovirus Transmission from Invasive Parakeets to Native Birds.

The transmission of pathogens to native species has been highlighted as one of the most important impacts of biological invasions. In this study, we evaluated the presence of psittacine beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) and other circoviruses in native bird species cohabiting with invasive populations of wild rose-ringed (Psittacula krameri) and monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) that were found positive for a particular BFDV genotype in Sevilla, southern Spain. None of the 290 individuals from the 18 native bird species captured showed typical signs of disease caused by BFDV. A sample of 79 individuals from 15 native species showed negative results for the presence of the BFDV genotype previously detected in the sympatric invasive parakeets, as well as any other of the circoviruses tested. Although preliminary, this study suggests a lack of circovirus transmission from invasive parakeets to native birds at the study site. Further research is needed to determine if this apparent absence in transmission depends on the BFDV genotype present in the parakeets, which requires additional screening in other invasive and native populations living in sympatry.

Wild Goffin's cockatoos flexibly manufacture and use tool sets.

The use of different tools to achieve a single goal is considered unique to human and primate technology. To unravel the origins of such complex behaviors, it is crucial to investigate tool use that is not necessary for a species' survival. These cases can be assumed to have emerged innovatively and be applied flexibly, thus emphasizing creativity and intelligence. However, it is intrinsically challenging to record tool innovations in natural settings that do not occur species-wide. Here, we report the discovery of two distinct tool manufacture methods and the use of tool sets in wild Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana). Up to three types of wooden tools, differing in their physical properties and each serving a different function, were manufactured and employed to extract embedded seed matter of Cerbera manghas. While Goffin's cockatoos do not depend on tool-obtained resources, repeated observations of two temporarily captive wild birds and indications from free-ranging individuals suggest this behavior occurs in the wild, albeit not species-wide. The use of a tool set in a non-primate implies convergent evolution of advanced tool use. Furthermore, these observations demonstrate how a species without hands can achieve dexterity in a high-precision task. The presence of flexible use and manufacture of tool sets in animals distantly related to humans significantly diversifies the phylogenetic landscape of technology and opens multiple avenues for future research. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Alimentary squamous cell carcinoma in psittacines: 12 cases and review of the literature.

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), which is a neoplasm that usually arises from the integument, is reported uncommonly in pet birds. Only a few reports of SCCs in the alimentary tract of birds, including psittacines, have been published, and a detailed description of the pathology is not available in the literature. We present here 12 cases of alimentary SCC in psittacines. The average age of the birds was 22.2 y (range: 15-29 y), and affected species included 4 Amazon parrots (Amazona sp.), 3 cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), 3 macaws (Ara sp.), 1 conure (Eupsittula sp.), and 1 Senegal parrot (Poicephalus sp.). Frequent clinical complaints included regurgitation, dysphagia, dyspnea, lethargy, and/or weight loss. SCC primarily affected the oral cavity in 6 of 12 cases, the crop alone in 2 of 12 cases, the crop and esophagus in 1 of 12 cases, the proventriculus alone in 1 of 12 cases, and the crop, esophagus, and proventriculus in 2 of 12 cases. Histologically, alimentary SCCs were locally invasive and often resulted in mucosal ulceration. Although there were no metastases in any of our cases, poor clinical outcomes were frequent and associated most commonly with complete effacement of the alimentary segment and severe inflammation with opportunistic bacterial infection. Our review of the literature records commonly affected species, variability of gross presentations and clinical signs, plausible etiologies, and current diagnostic developments.

Computed tomographic and gross anatomy of the head of the blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva).

The blue-fronted Amazon parrot is an extremely popular pet bird in Brazil. These birds are commonly raised in captivity and are often seen in veterinary practice. Modern imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT), which had not been widely used in wild and exotic bird medicine until recently, are now becoming more popular due to wider availability and higher diagnostic accuracy. However, proper interpretation of tomographic findings requires species-specific anatomical references. Studies investigating normal tomographic anatomy of parrots are scarce. This study set out to describe the normal anatomy of the head of the blue-fronted amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) using conventional CT. Anatomical descriptions may contribute to future comparative morphology studies and assist in clinical practice. The head of the blue-fronted Amazon parrot is structurally similar to other bird species. Major differences detected were are as follows: size and position of nasal conchae (long middle concha and small caudal concha located at the end of the nasal cavity), infraorbital sinus aperture located on the lateral aspect of the nasal cavity, presence of a nasopharyngeal duct connecting the nasal and oral cavities, longer infraorbital sinus with a larger number of caudal compartments and paraglossum with morphological features unique to psittacines. High-quality CT images were vital for identification and detailed description of most head structures. Multiplanar reconstruction was a useful tool for complete visualization of the head. However, conventional CT images were not good enough for visualization of the inner ear and related structures, as well the paratympanic sinus.

Occurrence and Molecular Typing of Giardia psittaci in Parakeets in Germany-A Case Study.

A grey-hooded parakeet (Psilopsiagon aymara) and two budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) from different owners presented with decreased activity, vomitus, and diarrhea. A microscopic examination of feces showed trophozoites of the protozoan flagellate Giardia. A commercial immunochromatographic dipstick test for Giardia sp. antigens confirmed the infection. These findings were assured by PCR of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene and coproantigen ELISA. Sequencing of PCR products of the SSU rRNA (292 bp) and ß-giardin genes (511 bp) identified Giardia psittaci as the species involved. Therefore, our results show that a GSA 65-based coproantigen ELISA, which was established for diagnosis of Giardia duodenalis is applicable for the detection of G. psittaci. A treatment with ronidazole was started. Additionally, fecal examination and dissection of the dead birds revealed coinfection with the fungal pathogen Macrorhabdus ornithogaster. One budgerigar survived and repeatedly tested negative after treatment with ronidazole. The described cases indicate that a single infection with G. psittaci has a good prognosis, whereas the prognosis is poor when coinfections occur, especially with M. ornithogaster.

Reporte de caso- Presentación y tipificación molecular de Giardia psittaci en periquitos en Alemania: Un estudio de caso. Un periquito catita aimará (Psilopsiagon aymara) y dos periquitos australianos (Melopsittacus undulatus) de diferentes propietarios presentaron actividad disminuida, vómito y diarrea. El examen microscópico de las heces mostró trofozoitos del protozoo flagelado Giardia. Una prueba de tira reactiva inmunocromatográfica comercial para antígenos de Giardia sp. confirmó la infección. Estos resultados fueron confirmados por PCR para el gene de ARN de la subunidad pequeña ribosomal (SSU rRNA) y por ELISA de coproantígeno. La secuenciación de los productos de PCR del ARNr de SSU (292 pb) y los genes de ß-giardina (511 pb) identificaron a Giardia psittaci como la especie involucrada. Por lo tanto, estos resultados muestran que el método de ELISA de coproantígeno basado en GSA 65, que se estableció para el diagnóstico de Giardia duodenalis, es aplicable para la detección de G. psittaci. Se inició un tratamiento con ronidazol. Además, el examen fecal y la disección de las aves muertas revelaron coinfección con el patógeno fúngico Macrorhabdus ornithogaster. Un periquito australiano sobrevivió y dio negativo repetidamente después del tratamiento con ronidazol. Los casos descritos indican que la infección única con G. psittaci tiene un buen pronóstico, mientras que el pronóstico es malo cuando ocurren coinfecciones, especialmente con M. ornithogaster. Abbreviations: GSA = Giardia-specific antigen; OD = optical density; rRNA = ribosomal ribonucleic acid; SSU = small subunit.

Avian coxiellosis in nine psittacine birds, one black-browed barbet, and one paradise tanager.

Infection with a novel species of the genus Coxiella was first described in three Swainson's blue mountain rainbow lorikeets from a zoological collection, and days later in a group of seven other psittacine birds and a toucan. We provide an update on coxiellosis in nine additional psittacines, and two non-psittacines. Psittacines originated in New England, the mid Atlantic, the Midwest, the South, and the Northwest. Psittacines most commonly had lesions in the brain, spleen, liver, and lungs, consisting of meningoencephalitis, hepatosplenomegaly, and interstitial pneumonia. Lesions contained histiocytic infiltrate, with intracytoplasmic, Gimenez-positive coccobacilli. Transmission electron microscopy revealed bacteria with trilaminar cell walls, electron dense cores, and spore-like forms. PCR revealed homology to the organism in index cases. In addition, one black-browed barbet and one paradise tanager were found with systemic coxiellosis; sequencing identified the same pathogen. These are the second piciforme and the first passerine affected by this pathogen, indicating expanded infectivity and pathogenicity.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Report of coxiellosis in nine psittacines; lesions often in brain, spleen, liver, lung.Second piciforme with coxiellosis, a black-browed barbet.First case of avian coxiellosis described in a passerine, a paradise tanager.

Detection and phylogenetic analysis of parrot bornavirus 4 identified from a Swedish Blue-winged macaw (Primolius maracana) with unusual nonsuppurative myositis.

Background: The genus Orthobornavirus comprises RNA viruses infecting humans, mammals, birds and reptiles, where parrot bornavirus 1 to 8 causes fatal neurological and/or gastrointestinal syndromes in psittacines. There is, to the best of our knowledge, no publication describing avian bornaviruses in pet parrots in Sweden. We aimed to identify and to produce epidemiologic knowledge about the etiologic agent associated with a history of severe weight loss and death of a Primolius maracana.Methods and results: The results of histopathology, immunohistochemistry and real-time RT-PCR were compatible with avian bornavirus infection. Sequencing indicated infection by parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4). The genotype reported shared high identity with PaBV-4 identified from pet psittacines and from wild birds in several countries. The N gene and X protein showed genotype clusters formation. P protein revealed to be more conserved within and between species of bornaviruses. Findings suggest horizontal transmission within and between avian orders and species.Conclusion: There seems to be a worldwide trading without biosafety measures, hence, further disease transmission could be avoided. For screening purposes, the P gene is a good candidate as a universal target in molecular diagnostics. Wild birds may be key pieces in the puzzle of bornavirus epidemiology.

Urofecal steroid profiles of captive Blue-fronted parrots (Amazona aestiva) with different reproductive outcomes.

Despite Psitaciformes (parrots) being the third largest nonpasserine order (398 species), it currently ranks second in number of threatened species (28%) according to the Internatinal Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria. Since most of the literature concerning reproductive endocrinology in avian species derives from domestic and song birds, it is puzzling that advances in reproductive science for the Psitaciformes order lags far behind, in spite of the growing threats against them. In order to expand our knowledge of Neotropical parrots (Psittacidae), we examined annual changes in urofecal sex steroid metabolites of Blue-fronted amazon pairs (Amazona aestiva) exhibiting successful (nestlings) and unsuccessful breeding (infertile or no eggs). Urofecal samples were collected over a year from eight breeding pairs housed under the same environmental and management conditions. Fecal androgen and progestagen concentrations were determined in males and females, respectively, by enzyme immunoassays previously validated for this species. All eggs were registered between late winter and mid-spring, and egg-laying intervals varied between females (range: 1-8 days; average 3.60 ±â€¯0.51 days). Similar profiles of urofecal progestagens were observed in reproductively successful females and females producing infertile eggs, with progestagen peaks preceding egg laying events (1.77 ±â€¯0.50 days). In contrast, non-laying females had no rises in progestagens during the year. Successful and unsuccessful males did not displayed distinct annual patterns of androgen production, and apart from the peaks during the breeding season, more than half of the individuals intriguingly presented significant increases from late summer to early autumn, a period without reproductive activity. Finally, we noticed that samples with progestagen levels exceeding 40 ng/g had very high probability (>97.5%) to be from females in pre-laying or laying phases, suggesting a feasible application of this characteristic to noninvasively discriminate the reproductive status in amazon females with an accuracy and sensitivity of 94.55% and 58.13%, respectively. Our findings confirmed that urofecal progestagens and androgens are good indicators of the gonadal condition in Blue-fronted amazons, but there is still much to be done for their extensive use in artificial insemination or selection of the most suitable breeding birds for the season.

Cryptosporidium spp. in caged exotic psittacines from Brazil: Evaluation of diagnostic methods and molecular characterization.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of and diagnostic methods for Cryptosporidium spp. in caged adult exotic parrots from Southern and Southeastern Brazil. Oocysts were purified from fecal samples from 463 psittacines by centrifugal-flotation in Sheather's sugar solution. Cryptosporidium spp. were detected by malachite green negative staining and nested PCR targeting the 18S rRNA gene. Cryptosporidium species were identified by sequencing nested PCR amplicons. Samples were also tested by duplex real-time PCR targeting the 18S rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium galli and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III. The prevalence rates of Cryptosporidium spp. determined by microscopy and nested PCR were 3.0% (14/463) and 5.0% (23/463), respectively. The nested PCR/sequencing identified avian genotype III (1.7%; 8/463), Cryptosporidium parvum (0.9%; 4/463) and Cryptosporidium canis (0.2%; 1/463). Duplex real-time PCR was positive for gastric Cryptosporidium in 9.5% (44/463) of the samples. Among them, 1.9% (9/463) were positive for C. galli, 5.8% (27/463) were positive for avian genotype III and 1.7% (8/463) showed mixed infections with C. galli and avian genotype III. With regards to the positive detection of Cryptosporidium spp., there was no statistically significant difference between nested PCR and microscopic analysis (p = .1237), and a fair agreement existed between them (Kappa = 0.242). A statistically significant difference (p < .0001) and fair agreement (Kappa = 0.317) were obtained between nested PCR/sequencing and duplex real-time PCR for the detection of gastric Cryptosporidium. We determined that nested PCR and duplex real-time PCR are the best options for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and gastric Cryptosporidium, respectively, and that avian genotype III is the most common Cryptosporidium genotype/species in psittacines.

PRESUMPTIVE PIT VIPER ENVENOMATION IN PSITTACINES IN A BRAZILIAN ZOO.

Snake bites represent a serious public health risk in many regions of the globe, especially in tropical areas. Clinical signs and postmortem changes are well described in human and other mammalian species. However, detailed case reports about venomous snake attacks in avian species are limited. This report describes presumptive fatal envenomations in three psittacines caused by pit vipers in a Brazilian zoo. In one case, a Brazilian lancehead (Bothrops moojeni) was captured in the aviary. In all three cases the dermis around the suspected snake bite area exhibited hemorrhages and edema. Histologically, degeneration and necrosis of subcutaneous musculature were observed. Lung, heart, and kidneys displayed focal hemorrhages. The local changes are similar to those described for mammalian patients including humans. However, except for the parenchymatous hemorrhages, additional external and internal gross and histopathological lesions were missing. After ruling out other causes, such as aggression and dicoumarinic intoxication, the presumptive diagnosis of snake envenomation was made. The smaller size and variabilities of pathophysiological effects of the venom in parrots might explain the different lesion patterns observed, compared with mammals. Possibly, the birds may have reacted differently to envenomation by pit vipers and died before the venom could cause macroscopic and histological changes often observed in mammals.