Development and validation of a questionnaire to evaluate attitudes and beliefs of discrimination by nursing staff.

OBJECTIVE: Aim: The purpose of this study is to report on the development and initial psychometric testing of a questionnaire to investigate nurses' discrimination attitudes and beliefs towards people of dif f erent ethnic origins. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and Methods: The initial stage involved the selection of the questions of the tool after a comprehensive evaluation of the relevant international literature and the tools used in previous related studies. The reliability (forward-backward translation) of the questions was assessed, along with the content, face, and structure. To conduct the study, which was carried out from 07/2021 to 01/2022 a sample consisting of 30 and 2,034 nurses and their assistants was used for the pilot and the fi nal research, respectively. RESULTS: Results: Given that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) threshold value of 0.89 was achieved, the sample was considered sufficient and appropriate for factor analysis. A statistically signif i cant result (p<0.001) from Bartlett's test indicated a substantial connection between the questions and conf i rmed that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Twenty statements altogether, with seven possible answers ranging from "totally disagree" to "completely agree," were included in the questionnaire. For the questions, three distinct factors - communication, difficulties, and discrimination - were shown to account for 47.1% of the variability. Reliability analyzes showed satisfactory Cronbach alpha coefficient scores for all factors, ranging from 0.78 to 0.82. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: The current study demonstrates that the questionnaire we developed is a legitimate and trustworthy instrument for evaluating professional nurses' discriminatory attitudes and beliefs toward individuals from various ethnic backgrounds. The questionnaire can be used to help design interventions to end discrimination, guarantee equitable access to healthcare services, and provide high-quality care for individuals from diverse backgrounds. It can also be used to identify the factors that inf l uence nurses' attitudes and perceptions toward these patient populations.

What black people value when white people confront prejudice.

Previous research in psychology has focused on how confronting racial prejudice affects White people - White perpetrators and bystanders - and reduces their prejudice. We shift the focus to Black people - Black people targeted by prejudice and Black observers - and examine how Black people perceive White people's confrontations. Two hundred forty-two Black participants evaluated White participants' responses to anti-Black comments (i.e., confrontations), which were text-analyzed and content-coded to identify the characteristics that Black participants valued the most. Analyses revealed that Black participants valued confrontations that were coded as direct, targeting the action, labeling the prejudiced action as such, and connecting individual acts of prejudice to systemic racism. Notably, this style of confrontation is not what research suggests is best for White people, for reducing Whites' prejudice. Accordingly, the present work contributes to our understanding of confronting prejudice and the value of centering Black experiences and perspectives rather than White comfort and prejudice.

Understanding racial bias through electroencephalography.

Research on racial bias in social and cognitive psychology has focused on automatic cognitive processes such as categorisation or stereotyping. Neuroimaging has revealed differences in the neural circuit when processing social information about one's own or another's ethnicity. This review investigates the influence of racial bias on human behaviour by reviewing studies that examined changes in neural circuitry (i.e. ERP responses) during automatic and controlled processes elicited by specific tasks. This systematic analysis of specific ERP components across different studies provides a greater understanding of how social contexts are perceived and become associated with specific stereotypes and behavioural predictions. Therefore, investigating these related cognitive and neurobiological functions can further our understanding of how racial bias affects our cognition more generally and guide more effective programs and policies aimed at its mitigation.

Community-level explicit racial prejudice potentiates whites' neural responses to black faces: A spatial meta-analysis.

We evaluated the hypothesis that neural responses to racial out-group members vary systematically based on the level of racial prejudice in the surrounding community. To do so, we conducted a spatial meta-analysis, which included a comprehensive set of studies (k = 22; N = 481). Specifically, we tested whether community-level racial prejudice moderated neural activation to Black (vs. White) faces in primarily White participants. Racial attitudes, obtained from Project Implicit, were aggregated to the county (k = 17; N = 10,743) in which each study was conducted. Multi-level kernel density analysis demonstrated that significant differences in neural activation to Black (vs. White) faces in right amygdala, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were detected more often in communities with higher (vs. lower) levels of explicit (but not implicit) racial prejudice. These findings advance social-cognitive neuroscience by identifying aspects of macro-social contexts that may alter neural responses to out-group members.

Perceived racism or racial discrimination and the risk of adverse obstetric outcomes: a systematic review

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Racial disparities are differences among distinct subgroups of the human species; biologically, there are no scientifically proven reasons for them to exist. OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of racism or racial discrimination on obstetric outcomes. DESIGN AND SETTING: Systematic review conducted at a tertiary/academic hospital. METHODS: The Cochrane Library, SCOPUS/EMBASE, PubMed, Web of Science and ClinicalTrials.gov databases were searched from inception to June 2020. Studies presenting any type of racial discrimination, or any manifestation of racism that was perceived by women of any age in an obstetric scenario were included. Studies that only assessed racial disparities without including direct racism were excluded. The secondary outcomes evaluated included quality of antenatal care, intra and postpartum care, preterm birth and birthweight. The Risk of Bias In Non-randomized Studies - of Interventions (ROBINS-I) scale was used to assess the quality of evidence from non-randomized studies. RESULTS: A total of 508 records were retrieved and 29 were selected for qualitative synthesis. No meta-analysis could be performed due to the high heterogeneity across studies. Perceived racism was associated as a risk factor in 7/10 studies focusing on pregnancy and postpartum maternal outcomes, five studies on preterm birth, one study on small for gestational age and two studies on low birthweight. Overall, among the 29 studies, the risk of bias was classified as moderate. CONCLUSIONS: Perceived racism presented an association with poor obstetric outcomes. Anti-racist measures are needed in order to address the problems that are causing patients to perceive or experience racism. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO database, CRD42020194382

Beyond Performance: Racial Prejudice and Whites' Mistrust of Government.

Scholars have argued that racial policy beliefs contributed to a decline in public trust among white-Americans, but this effect waned over time as racial policies left the agenda. We theorize that beliefs about racial policies may have been integrated into whites' racial attitudes, resulting in a durable association between racial prejudice and public trust. Our analysis of eight ANES surveys (1992-2020) shows that racial prejudice, measured in terms of anti-Black stereotypes, informs white Americans' beliefs about the trustworthiness of the federal government. LDV models strengthen our contention by showing that the relationship persists after an LDV is included and it is not reciprocal. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11109-022-09774-6.

Racial Prejudice and Police Stops: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literature.

A police stop must be based on founded suspicion: an officer's ability to correctly discriminate suspicious behavior. However, police stops can be influenced by negative attitudes toward Black individuals. We conducted a systematic review of empirical articles published from 2014 to 2019 that investigated the relationship between racial prejudice and police stops on PsycInfo using keywords such as "race," "ethnic," "police stop," "traffic stop," and "stop and frisk." Results included 16 studies conducted in the United States, England, Wales, and the Netherlands and showed that Black men were the most frequent targets of police stops; that many individuals who have been stopped by the police reported negative perceptions of the police force; that the Stop, Question, and Frisk strategy used by some U.S. police departments proved to be a type of stop that favors racial selectivity; and that traffic stops were favorable environments for racially biased actions by officers. We conclude that institutional racism in police stops proves to be a problem shared by several countries, including Brazil. We suggest more investigations to characterize institutional racism in the police force and in other settings and interventions aimed at reducing individual biases and collective racist practices.

Variables involved in the acquisition and maintenance of racial aggression and its victims' reactions.

This study aimed to investigate how behavior analysis can contribute to the understanding of some variables and processes involved in the acquisition and maintenance of racial aggressors' behaviors, as well as the victims' reactions. We describe how the concepts of rule-governed behavior and motivating operations may be involved in institutional racism: Individuals belonging to ethnic groups who hold the social administration in a context may keep important reinforcers available for their own group, while other racial groups may have their access to those reinforcers hindered. For these privileges to be perpetuated, the ruling group can arrange contingencies that reinforce the behavior of following certain rules that contribute to the maintenance of relevant reinforcers for the ruling group and exclusion of Black individuals and other people of color. For those underrepresented groups, motivating operations can be manipulated and reinforcers can be provided only when their responses are deemed appropriate by the dominant group. Individual learning through discriminative training, equivalence class formation, transfer of functions, stimulus generalization, and function altering were also discussed. Patterns such as aggression, escape, and avoidance, were identified in the actions of racial aggressors. Finally, the victim's reactions were also identified as escape, avoidance, or aggression of racial aggressors, but also as effects of processes such as learned helplessness, extinction after elimination of benefits, countercontrol, and respondent conditioning. Despite the lack of research in the field, behavior analysis has the power to elucidate some variables related to this theme, aiding, thus, evidence-based intervention proposals.

White College Students' Racial Prejudice and Perceptions of Racial Hate Crime.

This study investigated how racial prejudice influences White college students' perceptions of hate crime. We also examined the moderating effects of the race of the victim of hate crimes and the absence of hate crime laws. Our sample included 581 White students in a predominantly White university located in a state that does not have a hate crime law. The study was set up in a 2 (race of the victim and the perpetrator) × 3 (level of assault) factorial design. Participants rated their perceptions of three scenarios (i.e., non-racially biased simple assault, racially biased simple assault, and racially biased aggravated assault). The dependent variables were perceptions of hate crime and willingness to report. The key independent variable was participants' level of racial prejudice. The moderators included race of the victim in each scenario and whether participants' state of origin has a hate crime law. Results suggest that higher levels of modern racism were associated with lower perceptions of hate crime and lower willingness to report racially biased simple and aggravated hate crime. When the victim was White, participants with higher levels of racial prejudice were more likely to perceive a hate crime and more willing to report it. The opposite was true when the victim was Black. The absence of state hate crime laws and race of victim were significant moderators. Our study suggests that racial prejudice is associated with lower perceptions of hate crime and willingness to report. Furthermore, the moderating effect of the race of victims provides insights on how racial prejudice can lead to a differential perception of hate crime, depending on whether one's racial in-group is targeted. Our findings also highlight the importance of having state-level hate crime laws to mitigate the linkage between modern racism and perceptions of hate crime.

Focusing the Lens to See More Clearly: Overcoming Definitional Challenges and Identifying New Directions in Racial Microaggressions Research.

Despite significant advances in research on racial microaggressions, key challenges remain regarding how to define and classify them. Resolving these challenges is necessary to reduce misunderstanding and the subsequent minimization of racial microaggression research. Our goals in this article are to discuss the definitional challenges, to discuss implications for the creation of taxonomies, and to offer directions for how a revised definition and corresponding taxonomies can be used to further racial microaggression research. Regarding our first aim, we assert that racial microaggressions are observable events that occur independently of intention (i.e., regardless of whether they are intentional or unintentional) or impact (i.e., regardless of how they are perceived by recipients). Moreover, we assert that racial microaggressions are most validly defined by people of color and can have different meanings on the basis of situational context. The second aim is to propose a refinement and expansion of racial microaggression taxonomies. Sue and colleagues' taxonomy has been invaluable, yet other ways of classifying microaggressions and moving toward dimensional taxonomies are needed to advance scholarship. We highlight key dimensions related to the experience, perpetration, characteristics, and sociopolitical function of racial microaggressions that may be useful for future taxonomies. Overall, overcoming definitional challenges and expanding taxonomies holds potential to advance the literature on racial microaggression.

How information about race-based health disparities affects policy preferences: Evidence from a survey experiment about the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.

In this article, we report on the results of an experimental study to estimate the effects of delivering information about racial disparities in COVID-19-related death rates. On the one hand, we find that such information led to increased perception of risk among those Black respondents who lacked prior knowledge; and to increased support for a more concerted public health response among those White respondents who expressed favorable views towards Blacks at baseline. On the other hand, for Whites with colder views towards Blacks, the informational treatment had the opposite effect: it led to decreased risk perception and to lower levels of support for an aggressive response. Our findings highlight that well-intentioned public health campaigns spotlighting disparities might have adverse side effects and those ought to be considered as part of a broader strategy. The study contributes to a larger scholarly literature on the challenges of making and implementing social policy in racially-divided societies.

Preconceito racial entre crianças da educação infantil: Revisitando Clark & Clark (1947) / Racial Prejudice among Children of Early Childhood Education: Revisiting Clark & Clark (1947) / Prejuicio racial entre niños de la educación infantil: Revisitando Clark & Clark (1947)

Resumo O preconceito racial entre crianças é um tema sumamente importante para explorar a gênese desse vírus social. No entanto, poucos pesquisadores no Brasil se interessaram pela temática. O objetivo principal desse trabalho é replicar o experimento clássico de Clark e Clark (1947). Participaram 99 crianças paraibanas, negras (51) e brancas (48). Cerca de 86,9% das crianças escolheram a boneca branca para brincar; 78,8% das crianças consideram a boneca branca como a boa; 76,8% escolheram a boneca negra como má; 92,9% das crianças escolheram boneca de branca como a legal; 84,8% das crianças disseram que a boneca branca se parece com ela; 85,9% disseram que fariam atividade para nota com a boneca branca. Os principais resultados denunciam o preconceito de cor em crianças no ambiente escolar. Espera-se que novos estudos ressaltem a temática do preconceito racial entre crianças escolares, destacando o papel da mídia, da família e da escola.

Abstract The racial prejudice among children is an extremely important issue in exploring the genesis of this social virus. However, few researchers in Brazil were interested in the subject. The main objective of this paper is to replicate the classic Clark and Clark´s experiment (1947). Ninety-nine children from Paraíba, black (51) and white (48) participated. About 86.9% of the children chose the white doll to play with; 78.8% of the children considered the white doll as the good one; 76.8% chose the black doll as the bad one; 92.9% of the children considered the white doll as the nice one; 84.8% of the children indicated that the white doll looks like them; 85.9% stated that they would do academic activity with the white doll. The main results denounce the color prejudice in children in the school environment. More studies are expected to highlight racial prejudice among school-age children, highlighting the role of the media, the family and the school.

Resumen El prejuicio racial entre niños es un tema sumamente importante para explorar la génesis de este virus social. Sin embargo, pocos investigadores en Brasil se han interesado por la temática. El objetivo principal de este trabajo es replicar el experimento clásico de Clark y Clark (1947) sobre la génesis y el desarrollo de la identificación racial en función de la autoconciencia en los niños negros1. Participaron 99 niños paraibanos, negros (51) y blancos (48). Cerca de 86,9% de los niños eligieron la muñeca blanca para jugar; 78,8% de los niños consideran la muñeca blanca como la buena; 76,8% eligió la muñeca negra como mala; 92,9% de los niños eligieron muñeca blanca como la agradable; 84,8% de los niños señaló que la muñeca blanca se parece a ellos; 85,9% afirmó que realizarían actividad académica con la muñeca blanca. Los principales resultados denuncian el prejuicio de color en niños en el ambiente escolar. Se espera que más estudios resalten los prejuicios raciales entre los niños en edad escolar, destacando el papel de los medios de comunicación, la familia y la escuela.

Color-Blind Racial Attitudes in Dental Hygiene Students: A pilot study.

Purpose: Color-blind racial attitudes and biases have been linked to racial prejudice which may potentially affect dental hygiene care to diverse patients. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the color-blind racial attitudes of dental hygiene students.Methods: A 20-item, Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS) electronic survey was sent to a convenience sample of 41 first-year and 30 second-year dental hygiene students (n=71) in a dental hygiene program in Virginia. The CoBRAS instrument measures contemporary racial attitudes and stereotyping in three subcategories: Unawareness of Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues. CoBRAS scores range from 20-120, with higher scores indicating elevated levels of denial of racism. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data.Results: Of the 71 students invited to participate, 70 completed the survey (n=70) for a 98.6% response rate. The majority of respondents were White females (70%, 98% respectively), aged 18-29 (90%). Results indicated an overall average CoBRAS score of 64.89. No statistically significant findings were identified between the two groups in regards to overall scores (p>0.05).Conclusion: A majority of the participants in this pilot study possessed moderate levels of color-blind racial attitudes, suggesting rejection of the concept of racism. Color-blind racial attitudes and biases have been linked to a lack of awareness of White privilege. Further education in this area may foster improved interactions with diverse patient populations.

Cuotas raciales: un estudio sobre las representaciones sociales de universitarios y no universitarios / Racial quotas: a study about university student's and non-university's social representations

Resumen Objetivo. Analizar el posicionamiento de estudiantes y no estudiantes frente a las cuotas raciales en las universidades públicas brasileñas, así como las justificaciones para ese posicionamiento. Además, investigar los niveles de prejuicio existentes entre los participantes y la relación entre su color de piel y sus posicionamientos frente a esas cuotas. Participantes. 83 estudiantes y 63 no estudiantes. Los resultados demostraron que los no estudiantes se perciben más prejuiciosos y un 74% de los participantes son favorables a las cuotas, siendo los autodeclarados negros los que indicaron mayor concordancia. El análisis léxico demostró que los estudiantes anclan sus posicionamientos en principios meritocráticos, mientras que los no universitarios anclan en principios igualitarios, reflejando la forma en cómo estos grupos construyen simbólicamente el significado de las cuotas raciales a partir de sus pertenencias sociales.

Abstract This work aimed at analyzing the positioning of students and non-students about racial quotas in the Brazilian public universities and the justifications for that positioning. We also investigated the levels of prejudice existing among the participants and the relationship between their skin color and their positions about those quotas. The participants were 83 students and 63 non-students. The results showed that non-students perceive themselves as more prejudiced and 74% of the them were favorable to the quotas, being the self-declared black those that indicated greater agreement. The lexical analysis showed that students anchor their positions in meritocratic principles, while non-students anchor on egalitarian principles, reflecting the way in which these groups symbolically construct the meaning of racial quotas based on their group memberships.

Cultural Snapshots: A Method to Capture Social Contexts in Development of Prejudice and Stereotyping.

The scientific identification of how social environments transmit intergroup biases is a transparently complex endeavor. Existing research has examined the emergence of intergroup biases such as racial prejudice and stereotypes in many ways, including correlations between racial diversity and children's prejudice, content analyses of features in the media, or experiments testing the influence of selected variables with unknown prevalence in children's environments. Yet, these approaches have left unanswered how the social environments that children engage with cause them to acquire racial prejudice and stereotypes. We provide a review of the existing literature on socialization of racial prejudice and stereotypes and then present a methodological approach that can be used to quantify and test causal relations between the features of children's social environments and intergroup biases. We provide examples of how this method has and can be used alongside a discussion of unique considerations when applied to child samples.

Promoting beliefs in the inalienability of human rights by attributing uniquely human emotions through multiple categorization.

The combination of multiple categorization (i.e., the use of multiple criteria to define others) and human identity-the superordinate group of human beings-has recently been highlighted as a method to reduce implicit (i.e., attribution of secondary emotions) and explicit (i.e., attribution of human rights) dehumanization toward Blacks. In two studies aimed to replicate such evidence the mediating role of secondary emotions in explaining the impact of multiple and human categorization in reducing dehumanization was assessed. The role of implicit cognition, such as attribution of secondary emotions in leading people to attribute human rights to minorities, is discussed.

Bases psicosociales del prejuicio étnico en el Perú: el caso de las categorías afroperuanos, peruanos andinos y peruanos blancos / Psychosocial bases of ethnic prejudice in Peru: the case of Afro-Peruvian, Andean-Peruvian and White Peruvians categories

Tomando como base una muestra de personas de clase media de la ciudad de Lima (n=194) se analiza la relación entre variables ideológicas, emocionales y de contenido estereotípico con la valoración personal y percibida de tres categorías étnico raciales: peruanos andinos, peruanos blancos y afroperuanos. Los resultados permiten visibilizar el papel de las variables ideológicas en los niveles de prejuicio dirigidos a dichas categorías, principalmente a las categorías blanco y afroperuano. Además, se hallaron impactos específicos de dimensiones estereotípicas tradicionalmente asociadas con la categoría blanco, andino y afroperuano, como la competencia, lo moral y lo positivo en términos de calidez, respectivamente. Así también, se identifican impactos específicos de las emociones asociadas a cada categoría, principalmente a la categoría peruano blanco y peruano andino. Se analizan además las diferencias obtenidas en los niveles de conservadurismo por sexo. Finalmente, se discute lo hallado a la luz de la evidencia sistemática hallada en otras investigaciones en contextos nacionales.

Based on a sample of middle-class people from the city of Lima (n = 194), the relationship between ideological, emotional and stereotypical content variables is analyzed with the personal and perceived value of three ethnic-racial categories: Andean Peruvians, White Peruvians, and Afro-Peruvians. The results allow visualizing the role of ideological variables in the levels of prejudice directed to these categories, mainly to the White and Afro-Peruvian categories. Moreover, specific impacts of stereotypical dimensions traditionally associated with White, Andean and Afro-Peruvian categories were found, such as competition, moral and the positive in terms of warmth, respectively. Additionally, specific impacts of the emotions associated with each category are identified, mainly to the White and Andean-Peruvian. Furthermore, the differences obtained in the levels of conservatism by sex are also analyzed. Finally, findings are discussed in the light of the systematic evidence found in other investigations in national contexts.

Repertórios interpretativos acerca do preconceito racial no futebol / Interpretative repertoires about racial prejudice in football Racial prejudice in football / Repertorios interpretativos acerca del prejuicio racial en el fútbol Prejuicio racial en el fútbol

Neste trabalho objetivou-se analisar os repertórios interpretativos utilizados pelas pessoas para se posicionarem diante de situações de preconceito racial no futebol. Participaram 295 universitários, com idade média de 21 anos, sendo 37,1% do sexo masculino e 62,9% do sexo feminino. Utilizou-se um questionário com uma história fictícia na qual um torcedor de um time de futebol xingava um jogador do time adversário com termos depreciativos relacionados à sua cor. Em seguida, perguntava-se se isso seria uma demonstração de preconceito e pedia-se para que a resposta fosse justificada. A análise lexical das justificativas mostrou que, das cinco classes encontradas, quatro apresentam a ideia de que o preconceito existe e apenas uma nega sua existência. Esses resultados são discutidos enfatizando o fato que o contexto do futebol se apresenta como um cenário propício para investigar expressões flagrantes de preconceito racial porque existe a justificativa plausível da competição.

The aim of this study was to analyze the interpretative repertoires that people use to position themselves for or against in relation to racial prejudice situations in football. 295 college students took part in this research, with a mean of 21 years old; 37.1% were male and 62.9% female. A questionnaire in which participants responded to questions about a fictitious situation in which a supporter insulted a player of the rival team because of the color of his skin was used. Immediately after respondents were asked to justify whether the situation presented could be considered as an example of racial prejudice. The lexical analysis performed showed that, out of the five classes found, four of them presented the idea that prejudice exists and only one denies its existence. These results are discussed stressing the fact that the context of football represents an excellent setting to research situations of flagrant racial prejudice since the competition acts as plausible justification.

El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar los repertorios interpretativos utilizadas por las personas para posicionarse frente a situaciones de prejuicio racial en el fútbol. Participaron 295 estudiantes universitarios, con una edad media de 21 años, de los cuales un 37,1% eran hombres y un 62,9% eran mujeres. Se utilizó un cuestionario con una historia ficticia en la cual un aficionado de un equipo de fútbol insultaba a un jugador del equipo adversario con frases despectivas relativas al color de su piel. Posteriormente, se preguntaba sobre si dichas expresiones podrían considerarse como una demostración de prejuicio y se pedía que las respuestas fuesen explicadas. El análisis lexical de las justificaciones dadas mostró que, de las cinco clases encontradas, cuatro presentan la idea de que el prejuicio existe y apenas una niega su existencia. Estos resultados son discutidos enfatizando el hecho de que el contexto del fútbol se presenta como un escenario propicio para investigar las expresiones flagrantes de prejuicio racial porque existe la justificación plausible de la competición.

Insult or prejudice: a study on the racial prejudice expression in football / Xingamento ou preconceito: um estudo sobre a expressão do preconceito racial no futebol / Insulto o prejudicio: un estudio sobre la expresion racial del prejuicio en el futbol

This study aimed at analyzing the extent to which racial prejudice in football mediates the relationship between the use of verbal aggressions and compliance positioning that deny the existence of racial prejudice in football. Participants were 295 university students from Paraíba (Brazil), aged between 15 and 61 years (M=21, DP=6,01), being 109 males and 185 females. The results indicated that racial prejudice totally mediated the relationship between verbal aggressions and compliance with legal actions. Thus, verbal attacks are not merely the expression of negative attitudes directed towards the rival team but, to the extend that they are significantly associated with prejudice, they become a powerful form of legitimation of racial prejudice in denying its existence.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar em que medida o preconceito racial no futebol medeia a relação entre o uso de agressões verbais e a concordância com posicionamentos que negam a existência do preconceito racial no futebol. Participaram desta pesquisa 295 estudantes universitários da Paraíba, com idades entre 15 e 61 anos (M=21, DP=6,01) sendo 109 do sexo masculino e 185 do sexo feminino. Os resultados indicaram que a variável "preconceito racial" mediou totalmente a relação entre a agressão verbal e a concordância com as ações judiciais. Assim, as agressões verbais não seriam apenas manifestações de atitudes negativas direcionadas ao time rival, mas ao estarem associadas, de maneira significativa, com o preconceito, convertem-se em uma poderosa forma de legitimação do preconceito racial ao negar sua existência.

Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo analizar en qué medida el prejuicio racial en el fútbol media la relación entre la manifestación de agresiones verbales y el grado de acuerdo con posicionamientos que niegan la existencia de prejuicio racial en el fútbol. Participaron en esta investigación 295 estudiantes universitarios de Paraíba, con edades comprendidas entre los 15 y los 61 años (M=21, DS=6,01) de los cuales 109 eran hombres y 185 mujeres. Los resultados indican que la variable "prejuicio racial" medió totalmente la relación entre la agresión verbal y el acuerdo con las acciones judiciales. Las agresiones verbales no son meras manifestaciones de actitudes negativas frente al equipo rival, sino que están asociadas de manera significativa con el prejuicio lo que explica que en presencia de éste se conviertan en una poderosa forma de legitimación del prejuicio al negar su existencia.