Functional connectivity is linked to working memory differences in children with reading learning disability.

Reading learning disability (RLD) is characterized by a specific difficulty in learning to read that is not better explained by an intellectual disability, lack of instruction, psychosocial adversity, or a neurological disorder. According to the domain-general hypothesis, a working memory deficit is the primary problem. Working memory in this population has recently been linked to altered resting-state functional connectivity within the default mode network (DMN), salience network (SN), and frontoparietal network (FPN) compared to that in typically developing individuals. The main purpose of the present study was to compare the within-network functional connectivity of the DMN, SN, FPN, and reading network in two groups of children with RLD: a group with lower-than-average working memory (LWM) and a group with average working memory (AWM). All subjects underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and data were analyzed from a network perspective using the network brain statistics framework. The results showed that the LWM group had significantly weaker connectivity in a network that involved brain regions in the DMN, SN, and FPN than the AWM group. Although there was no significant difference between groups in reading network in the present study, other studies have shown relationship of the connectivity of the angular gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, and inferior parietal lobe with the phonological process of reading. The results suggest that although there are significant differences in functional connectivity in the associated networks between children with LWM and AWM, the distinctive cognitive profile has no specific effect on the reading network.

Efficacy of Learning Disorder Treatment for Reading or Mathematics Disorders: An Open Study.

Objectives: This study aimed to identify the effectiveness of treatment programs for children with reading (RD) or mathematics disorders (MD). Structured treatment programs were developed to improve phonological awareness and number sense among children and adolescents with RD or MD, respectively, and the effectiveness of the learning disorder treatment programs were evaluated. Methods: We used standardized, objective diagnostic, and evaluation tools not only to recruit participants with RD, MD, or comorbid attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, but also to assess the effectiveness of the treatments regarding both improved core neurocognitive deficits of RD or MD and academic achievement. Forty children with RD or MD received one-on-one treatments from therapists. Results: In the RD group, treatment effects were observed in all subtests. In the word and paragraph reading tests, the accuracy rates and fluency improved. The results of the phonological working memory test, word-sound correspondence test, and rapid automatic naming tests also improved. In the MD group, the accuracy rate and fluency on the arithmetic test improved. An increase in the accuracy rate in the size and distance comparison tests and a decrease in the error rate in the estimation test were also observed. However, there were no improvements in reaction time in these subtests. Conclusion: Learning disorder treatment programs that focus on improving phonological awareness or number sense in children with RD or MD improved achievement, phonological awareness, and number sense.

Dysgraphia Differs Between Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder and/or Reading Disorder.

Handwriting deficits, or dysgraphia, are present in several neurodevelopmental disorders. To investigate whether dysgraphia differs according to the associated disorder, we performed a detailed analysis of handwriting in children with developmental coordination disorders (DCD), reading disorder (RD), or comorbid RD and DCD. Handwriting deficits were investigated at the product (quality of the trace) and the process (movement that generates the trace) levels. Nineteen children with singular RD (among which eight with dysgraphia), 13 children with singular DCD (among which seven with dysgraphia), 16 children with comorbid RD+DCD (among which 11 with dysgraphia), and 20 typically developing children, age 7 to 12, performed the BHK (Brave Handwriting Kinder) test, a standardized assessment of handwriting, on a graphic tablet. Developmental coordination disorders primarily affected handwriting quality, while RD affected slowness and, to a lesser extent, quality. Children with RD, solely or comorbid with DCD, wasted time by lifting and stopping the pen when writing. The comorbidity added to but did not worsen, handwriting difficulties. These results reflect distinct motor impairments and/or strategies in children with DCD or RD. We identified subtypes of dysgraphia and advocated for a fine-grained analysis of the writing process and the assessment of motor and reading skills when studying dysgraphia.

The effects of rehabilitative interventions on reading disorders caused by homonymous visual field defects: a meta-analysis focusing on improvement in reading speed.

INTRODUCTION: Reading disorders caused by homonymous visual field defects (HVFDs) have a significant impact on a patient's quality of life. However, no review has been conducted to evaluate the available evidence on the effects of rehabilitative interventions on reading disorders caused by HVFDs. Thus, the aim of this study was to systematically evaluate the effects of rehabilitative interventions on reading disorders caused by HVFDs. METHODS: We searched the MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, ClinicalTrials.gov, CINAHL, and ScienceDirect databases for relevant articles. Relevant search terms were used to identify reports of randomized controlled trials or randomized crossover trials published between January 1990 and December 2021. Only studies that included reading-speed-related outcomes were analyzed. Risk of bias was assessed using the PEDro scale. Meta-analysis was conducted using a random-effects model, and standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Heterogeneity was assessed using the Ι2 statistic. RESULTS: Nine studies were included in the meta-analysis. The results showed that rehabilitative interventions significantly improved reading disorders caused by HVFDs (SMD = 0.30; 95% CI 0.08-0.51; P < 0.01; Ι2 = 0.0%). Subgroup analysis showed that reading training significantly improved reading disorders (SMD = 0.35; 95% CI 0.05-0.66; P = 0.02; Ι2 = 0.0%). CONCLUSION: Reading disorders caused by HVFDs can be improved through rehabilitation. In addition, reading training for the improvement of eye movement and fixation to compensate for foveal and parafoveal visual field defects may improve reading speed.

Attention-deficit/hyperactive-impulsive disorder symptoms among grade 1 students with reading disorder in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Reading disorder is the most common comorbid condition with attention-deficit/hyperactive-impulsive disorder (ADHD) in school-aged children. PURPOSE: This study compared symptoms of ADHD among children in grade 1 at risk of reading disorder with children not at risk. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 703 students in grade 1 aged 6-8 years from 8 schools in Pathumthani Province, Thailand, in 2019. Reading disorder was assessed using tools developed by Vibulpatanavong and Evans for Thai teachers, whereas the Thai parent and teacher versions of the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham IV Rating Scale (SNAP-IV) was used to evaluate ADHD symptoms. Demographic data were collected from parents using a self-reported questionnaire. RESULTS: Among the 703 students with almost equal number of male (n=350) and female (n=353), and the average age of 6.56±0.57 years, 95 (13.51%) were classified (significantly male) at risk of reading disorder. The mean SNAP-IV scores of children with reading disorder reported by parents and teachers (20.23±10.95 and 20.75±15.08, respectively) were significantly higher than those of neurotypical children (16.04 ±8.59 and 9.00±10.14, respectively, P<0.05). Of the 95 students with reading disorder reported by parents and teachers, 29 (30.53%) and 20 (21.05%) respectively, were defined as having ADHD according to the standard cutoff SNAP-IV scores, which were significantly higher than 608 neurotypical students at 108 (17.76%) and 20 (5.59%) (P<0.05). The odds ratios of children with reading disorder having ADHD symptoms according to teacher reports were 3.32 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.14-9.67; P<0.05), 3.75 (95% CI, 1.60-8.79; P<0.05), and 4.41 (95% CI, 1.20-16.15; P<0.05) for inattentive, hyperactive, and combined presentations, respectively. CONCLUSION: Grade 1 students with reading disorder had a significantly higher prevalence of ADHD symptoms than neurotypical students. Therefore, children with reading disorders should undergo ADHD assessments and receive proactive intervention.

Spelling Proficiency of Children with a Resolved Phonological Speech Sound Disorder Treated with an Integrated Approach-A Long-Term Follow-Up Randomized Controlled Trial.

Phonological developmental speech sound disorders (pDSSD) in childhood are often associated with later difficulties in literacy acquisition. The present study is a follow-up of the randomized controlled trial (RCT) on the effectiveness of PhonoSens, a treatment for pDSSD that focuses on improving auditory self-monitoring skills and categorial perception of phoneme contrasts, which could have a positive impact on later spelling development. Our study examines the spelling abilities of 26 German-speaking children (15 girls, 11 boys; mean age 10.1 years, range 9.3-11.2 years) 3-6 years after their successful completion of the PhonoSens treatment. Spelling assessment revealed that only 3 out of 26 participants developed a spelling disorder. In the overall population of fourth-graders, one in five children showed a spelling deficit; in another study of elementary school children, with resolved pDSSD, 18 of 32 children had a spelling deficit. Thus, the applied pDSSD treatment method appears to be associated with positive spelling development. Multiple regression analysis revealed that among the potentially predictive factors for German-speaking children with resolved pDSSD to develop later spelling difficulties, parental educational level and family risk for developmental language disorder (DLD) had an impact on children's spelling abilities; gender and the child's phonological memory had not.

Periodic and Aperiodic EEG Features as Potential Markers of Developmental Dyslexia.

Developmental Dyslexia (DD) is a neurobiological condition affecting the ability to read fluently and/or accurately. Analyzing resting-state electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in DD may provide a deeper characterization of the underlying pathophysiology and possible biomarkers. So far, studies investigating resting-state activity in DD provided limited evidence and did not consider the aperiodic component of the power spectrum. In the present study, adults with (n = 26) and without DD (n = 31) underwent a reading skills assessment and resting-state EEG to investigate potential alterations in aperiodic activity, their impact on the periodic counterpart and reading performance. In parieto-occipital channels, DD participants showed a significantly different aperiodic activity as indexed by a flatter and lower power spectrum. These aperiodic measures were significantly related to text reading time, suggesting a link with individual differences in reading difficulties. In the beta band, the DD group showed significantly decreased aperiodic-adjusted power compared to typical readers, which was significantly correlated to word reading accuracy. Overall, here we provide evidence showing alterations of the endogenous aperiodic activity in DD participants consistently with the increased neural noise hypothesis. In addition, we confirm alterations of endogenous beta rhythms, which are discussed in terms of their potential link with magnocellular-dorsal stream deficit.

The Use of Cognitive Tests in the Assessment of Dyslexia.

In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, in the assessment and diagnosis of dyslexia, from both historic and present-day perspectives. We discuss the role of cognitive tests in the operationalization of the concepts of specificity and unexpectedness, two constructs considered essential to the characterization of dyslexia since the publication of early case reports in the late nineteenth century. We review the advantages and disadvantages of several approaches to specific learning disabilities' identification that are used in schools. We also discuss contemporary debates around the use of standardized cognitive testing in dyslexia evaluations, in particular, the arguments of those who favor an approach to diagnosis based on prior history and the results of a comprehensive evaluation and those who favor an approach based on an individual's response to intervention. We attempt to explain both perspectives by examining clinical observations and research findings. We then provide an argument for how cognitive tests can contribute to an accurate and informed diagnosis of dyslexia.

A Real-World Data Study on the Impact of the ReadRx Cognitive Training and Reading Intervention on Cognition, Basic Reading Ability, and Psychosocial Skills for 3527 Children.

Background: The state of reading proficiency among children in the United States continues to be a subject of concern among psychologists, teachers, parents, policy makers, and the education community at large. Despite the widespread use of curricular methods that teach basic reading skills, there remains a large percentage of children that struggle to read. Therefore, novel approaches to reading remediation should be explored. Purpose: The aims of this study were to examine 1) the effect of a multicomponent cognitive and reading intervention on cognitive and reading skills; 2) the role of ADHD, age, sex, IQ score, and individual cognitive skills on the effectiveness of the ReadRx intervention; and 3) parent-reported behavioral outcomes following the ReadRx intervention. Methods: The current study analyzed a large real-world dataset to examine cognitive, reading, and behavioral outcomes for struggling readers (n = 3527) who had completed 24 weeks (120 hours) of intense cognitive training integrated with a structured literacy intervention using ReadRx in a one-on-one clinic setting. Results: Analyses of pretest and post-test scores showed statistically significant changes on all cognitive and reading measures including attention, visual processing, processing speed, long-term memory, working memory, reasoning, phonological awareness, Work Attack, phonetic coding, spelling, comprehension, and overall IQ score with medium to very large effect sizes. The results included an average 4.1-year gain in reading skills including a 6-year gain in phonological awareness. No differences were found based on age, sex, or ADHD status, and minimal differences were found based on pre-intervention IQ score and cognitive test scores. The study also included a qualitative thematic analysis of parent-reported behavioral outcomes revealing themes of improved cognition, academic performance, and psychosocial skills including confidence and perseverance. Conclusion: Our findings were consistent with previous controlled studies on this intervention and offer an encouraging alternative instructional approach to reading remediation that aligns with the Science of Reading and includes intensive remediation of underlying cognitive skills.

Does Dynamic Assessment Offer An Alternative Approach to Identifying Reading Disorder? A Systematic Review.

Traditional static tests of reading and reading-related skills offer some ability to predict future reading performance, though such screeners may misclassify children with or at risk of reading disorder (RD). Dynamic assessment (DA) is an alternative approach that measures learning potential and may be less dependent on learning background. A systematic review was carried out to examine the ability of DA to classify children with or at risk of RD. A database search yielded 14 eligible articles assessing DA of decoding, phonological awareness (PA), and working memory (WM). Results suggest that DA explains unique variance in the prediction of later RD status, and although models with a single dynamic predictor sometimes achieved good classification accuracy, this was enhanced somewhat by the addition of static predictors. Higher classification accuracy was found for DA targeting constructs more proximal to reading, particularly decoding, but the predictive power of DA of decoding and PA appeared to wane with increasing age as static measures explained more variance in outcomes. Some evidence emerged that DA provides benefits over static tests for the prediction of RD in bilingual students, though no studies examined outcomes by administration format or orthographic depth. Limitations and suggestions for future work are discussed.

Sensory temporal sampling in time: an integrated model of the TSF and neural noise hypothesis as an etiological pathway for dyslexia.

Much progress has been made in research on the causal mechanisms of developmental dyslexia. In recent years, the "temporal sampling" account of dyslexia has evolved considerably, with contributions from neurogenetics and novel imaging methods resulting in a much more complex etiological view of the disorder. The original temporal sampling framework implicates disrupted neural entrainment to speech as a causal factor for atypical phonological representations. Yet, empirical findings have not provided clear evidence of a low-level etiology for this endophenotype. In contrast, the neural noise hypothesis presents a theoretical view of the manifestation of dyslexia from the level of genes to behavior. However, its relative novelty (published in 2017) means that empirical research focused on specific predictions is sparse. The current paper reviews dyslexia research using a dual framework from the temporal sampling and neural noise hypotheses and discusses the complementary nature of these two views of dyslexia. We present an argument for an integrated model of sensory temporal sampling as an etiological pathway for dyslexia. Finally, we conclude with a brief discussion of outstanding questions.

Typical and Atypical Development of Visual Expertise for Print as Indexed by the Visual Word N1 (N170w): A Systematic Review.

The visual word N1 (N170w) is an early brain ERP component that has been found to be a neurophysiological marker for print expertise, which is a prelexical requirement associated with reading development. To date, no other review has assimilated existing research on reading difficulties and atypical development of processes reflected in the N170w response. Hence, this systematic review synthesized results and evaluated neurophysiological and experimental procedures across different studies about visual print expertise in reading development. Literature databases were examined for relevant studies from 1995 to 2020 investigating the N170w response in individuals with or without reading disorders. To capture the development of the N170w related to reading, results were compared between three different age groups: pre-literate children, school-aged children, and young adults. The majority of available N170w studies (N = 69) investigated adults (n = 31) followed by children (school-aged: n = 21; pre-literate: n = 4) and adolescents (n = 1) while some studies investigated a combination of these age groups (n = 12). Most studies were conducted with German-speaking populations (n = 17), followed by English (n = 15) and Chinese (n = 14) speaking participants. The N170w was primarily investigated using a combination of words, pseudowords, and symbols (n = 20) and mostly used repetition-detection (n = 16) or lexical-decision tasks (n = 16). Different studies posed huge variability in selecting electrode sites for analysis; however, most focused on P7, P8, and O1 sites of the international 10-20 system. Most of the studies in adults have found a more negative N170w in controls than poor readers, whereas in children, the results have been mixed. In typical readers, N170w ranged from having a bilateral distribution to a left-hemispheric dominance throughout development, whereas in young, poor readers, the response was mainly right-lateralized and then remained in a bilateral distribution. Moreover, the N170w latency has varied according to age group, with adults having an earlier onset yet with shorter latency than school-aged and pre-literate children. This systematic review provides a comprehensive picture of the development of print expertise as indexed by the N170w across age groups and reading abilities and discusses theoretical and methodological differences and challenges in the field, aiming to guide future research. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021228444.

Características fonológicas en población escolar con dislexia: Un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales / Phonological features in a school population with dyslexia: A structural equation model

Resumen Introducción: El trastorno específico del aprendizaje es una entidad nosológica del neurodesarrollo, las manifestaciones clínicas se hacen evidentes en la etapa escolar y son persistentes en el transcurso de la vida. La dislexia (DS) se caracteriza por una afectación en la comprensión y fluidez del proceso lector, asociada a déficits neurocognitivos. Objetivo: Analizar. la relación existente entre fluidez fonológica, repetición, denominación y comprensión verbal en niños con diagnóstico de DS. Método: Se empleó una muestra de N=114 personas con diagnóstico de DS escolarizados, en edades entre 7 y 16 años y un. muestreo no probabilístico. Construimos un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (MEE) en el software RCran 4.0.4, para analizar la relación entre las variables latentes (fluidez fonológica, fluidez semántica, repetición de pseudopalabras, repetición de frases, denominación y comprensión verbal), a través de los resultados de pruebas psicométricas estandarizadas; Test de Fluencia Verbal, Test de Boston, Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil y Escala Weschler IV de Inteligencia. Resultados: Las covarianzas entre fluidez fonológica y todos los componentes del lenguaje (LG) fueron positivas; fluidez semántica (σxy=0,55), repetición de pseudopalabras (σxz=0,53), repetición de frases (σxw=0,64), denominación del LG (σxv=0,60), comprensión verbal (σxy=0,57), lo que indica una relación directa. En las personas con DS, a menor fluidez fonológica mayores deficiencias del LG. Conclusión: En la DS la fluidez fonológica y semántica es limitada y se relaciona de manera directa con las manifestaciones clínicas de este trastorno del neurodesarrollo (TN).

Abstract Introduction: The specific learning disorder is a nosological entity of neurodevelopment, the clinical manifestations become evident in the school stage and are persistent throughout life. Dyslexia (DS) is characterized by an impairment in the comprehension and fluency of the reading process, associated with neurocognitive deficits. Objective: To analyze the relationship between phonological fluency, repetition, naming and verbal comprehension in children diagnosed with dyslexia (DS). Method: A sample of (N=114) school patients with DS diagnosis between the ages of 7 and 16 years, selected by non-probability sampling, was used. We built a structural equation model (MEE) in RCran 4.0.4 software, to analyze the relationship between the latent variables (phonological fluency, semantic fluency, pseudoword repetition, sentence repetition, naming and verbal comprehension), through the results of standardized psychometric tests; Verbal Fluency Test, Boston Test, Child Neuropsychological Assessment and Weschler Intelligence Scale IV. Results: Covariances between phonological fluency and all language (LG) components were positive; semantic fluency (σxy=0.55), pseudoword repetition (σxz=0.53), sentence repetition (σxw=0.64), LG naming (σxv=0.60), verbal comprehension (σxy=0.57), indicating a direct relationship. In people with DS, the lower the phonological fluency the greater the language deficits. Conclusion: In DS, phonological and semantic fluency is limited and is directly related to the clinical manifestations of this neurodevelopmental disorder (TN).

Development of an Abbreviated Adult Reading History Questionnaire (ARHQ-Brief) Using a Machine Learning Approach.

Several crucial reasons exist to determine whether an adult has had a reading disorder (RD) and to predict a child's likelihood of developing RD. The Adult Reading History Questionnaire (ARHQ) is among the most commonly used self-reported questionnaires. High ARHQ scores indicate an increased likelihood that an adult had RD as a child and that their children may develop RD. This study focused on whether a subset of ARHQ items (ARHQ-Brief) could be equally effective in assessing adults' reading history as the full ARHQ. We used a machine learning approach, lasso (known as L1 regularization), and identified 6 of 23 items that resulted in the ARHQ-Brief. Data from 97 adults and 47 children were included. With the ARHQ-Brief, we report a threshold of 0.323 as suitable to identify past likelihood of RD in adults with a sensitivity of 72.4% and a specificity of 81.5%. Comparison of predictive performances between ARHQ-Brief and the full ARHQ showed that ARHQ-Brief explained an additional 10%-35.2% of the variance in adult and child reading. Furthermore, we validated ARHQ-Brief's superior ability to predict reading ability using an independent sample of 28 children. We close by discussing limitations and future directions.

The role of grit and resilience in children with reading disorder: a longitudinal cohort study.

Prior studies have suggested that grit and resilience predict both academic and career success. However, these qualities have not been examined in children with reading disorder (RD). We therefore investigated whether grit and resilience were associated with anxiety, depression, academic performance, and quality of life (QOL) in these students. This 3-year longitudinal cohort study included 163 participants with RD from 3 schools. Evaluations were completed by parents and/or teachers every 3 months. The Grit and Resilience Scale was adapted from the 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale and the 12-item Grit Scale. Outcome measures included anxiety (School Anxiety Scale - Teacher Report and the 8-item Spence Children's Anxiety Scale), depression (Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire), academic performance, and QOL (Pediatric QOL Inventory 4.0). Multivariate linear regression models (adjusting for age and sex) assessed the associations at baseline. Repeated measures analysis using mixed-effects models assessed the relationship longitudinally. There were statistically significant associations between grit and resilience and all outcomes at baseline and over time. After adjusting for age and sex, improved grit and resilience was associated with decreased anxiety (ß = - 0.4, p < 0.001) and improved academic performance (ß = 0.5, p < 0.001) when grit and resilience was measured by teachers, as well as decreased depression (ß = - 0.3, p < 0.001) and improved QOL (ß = 0.6, p < 0.001) when grit and resilience was measured by parents. Grit and resilience are significantly related to mental health, academic performance, and QOL in children with RD. This suggests that interventions to improve grit and resilience may lead to positive benefits.

Are Different Types of Learning Disorder Associated With Distinct Cognitive Functioning Profiles?

Introduction: DSM-5 presented a revised conceptualization of specific learning disorders (LD). Contrary to former versions, the various types of LD-i.e., mathematics disorder, reading disorder, and writing disorder-are not treated as distinct diagnostic entities but are integrated into one single LD category. In support of this new classification, it has been argued that the various types of LD overlap to a great extent in their cognitive functioning profiles and therefore do not exhibit a distinct set of cognitive causes. In contrast, ICD-11 still adheres to the idea of discrete categories and thus follows the specificity hypothesis of LD. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we therefore tested the specificity of cognitive strengths and weaknesses in children with different types of LD. Secondly, we aimed at examining the extent to which observed LD characteristics (type and severity of LD as well as IQ-achievement discrepancy) were consistent with the membership of a given latent profile. Method: 302 German third-graders (134 girls; IQ ≥ 85; M age = 111.05 months; SD = 5.76) with single or comorbid types of LD in the domains of mathematics, reading, and spelling completed a wide range of domain-specific and domain-general cognitive functioning measures. Results: Five qualitative distinct profiles of cognitive strengths and weaknesses were identified. Profile 1 (23% of the sample) showed Comprehensive Cognitive Deficits, performing low in all measures except for naming speed, language, and inhibition. Profile 2 (21%) included children with a Double Deficit in Phonological Awareness and Phonological Short-term Memory. Profile 3 (20%) was characterized by a Double Deficit of Phonological Awareness and Naming Speed. Profile 4 (19%) included children with a Single Deficit in Attention, and profile 5 (17%) consisted of children without any cognitive deficits. Moreover, type and severity of LD as well as IQ-achievement discrepancy discriminated between the profiles, which is in line with the specificity hypothesis of LD. Discussion: Overall, the finding of specific associations between the LD types and the identified cognitive profiles supports the ICD-11 classification of LD. Yet, those inferences may not be valid for an individual child but need to be examined through comprehensive diagnostic.

Identifying Dyslexia: Link between Maze Learning and Dyslexia Susceptibility Gene, DCDC2, in Young Children.

Dyslexia is a common learning disability that affects processing of written language despite adequate intelligence and educational background. If learning disabilities remain untreated, a child may experience long-term social and emotional problems, which influence future success in all aspects of their life. Dyslexia has a 60% heritability rate, and genetic studies have identified multiple dyslexia susceptibility genes (DSGs). DSGs, such as DCDC2, are consistently associated with the risk and severity of reading disability (RD). Altered neural connectivity within temporoparietal regions of the brain is associated with specific variants of DSGs in individuals with RD. Genetically altering DSG expression in mice results in visual and auditory processing deficits as well as neurophysiological and neuroanatomical disruptions. Previously, we demonstrated that learning deficits associated with RD can be translated across species using virtual environments. In this 2-year longitudinal study, we demonstrate that performance on a virtual Hebb-Williams maze in pre-readers is able to predict future reading impairment, and the genetic risk strengthens, but is not dependent on, this relationship. Due to the lack of oral reporting and use of letters, this easy-to-use tool may be particularly valuable in a remote working environment as well as working with vulnerable populations such as English language learners.

Is executive dysfunction a potential contributor to the comorbidity between basic reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

Our study is one of the few to analyze executive functioning (EF) in a comprehensive, multi-modal fashion as a potential contributor to the comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and basic reading disability (RD). We included multiple, traditional, neuropsychological measures of EF, along with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) questionnaire, to assess inhibit, shift, working memory (WM), planning, generation fluency, and problem-solving. Participants included 263 children, ages 8-12 years, with RD, ADHD, RD/ADHD, and typically developing controls. When using the traditional measures in a 2 × 2 MANCOVA, we found both RD and ADHD had poor cognitive EF in most areas at the group level, with phonological loop deficits being more specific to RD and behavioral regulation deficits being more specific to ADHD. Children with RD/ADHD performed comparably to those with RD and ADHD alone. Results were similar on the BRIEF. In contrast, only WM predicted both basic reading and inattention when the data were assessed in a continuous fashion. It also explained the correlations between basic reading and inattention, being worthy of longitudinal research to determine if it is a shared contributor to RD/ADHD. When comparing hypotheses as to the nature of RD/ADHD, we found the multiple deficit hypothesis was better supported by our EF data than the phenocopy hypothesis or the cognitive subtype hypothesis.

[Missed opportunities: The new ICD-11 diagnostic guidelines for reading, spelling and calculation disorders]. / Verpasste Chancen: Die neuen diagnostischen Leitlinien zur Lese-, Rechtschreib- und Rechenstörung der ICD-11.

Missed opportunities: The new ICD-11 diagnostic guidelines for reading, spelling and calculation disorders Abstract. Abstract. The introduction of the ICD-11 caused changes to the concept of the disorder and in the diagnostic criteria of reading, spelling, and arithmetic disorders. ICD-10 had classified these disorders as specific development disorders of scholastic skills, whereas ICD-11 summarizes these disorders as developmental learning disorders in the groups of "neurodevelopmental disorders," together with ADHD, depression, autism, Tourette's syndrome, and schizophrenia. A major change is the classification of an isolated reading disorder and the expansion of the spelling disorder as a learning disorder with impairment in written expression. The diagnostic criteria still focus on the IQ discrepancy criterion, which is no longer supported in practice or by the research results.

The association between anxiety and academic performance in children with reading disorder: A longitudinal cohort study.

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between anxiety and overall academic performance (AP) in children with reading disorder (RD). This two-year longitudinal cohort study included 128 participants (aged 7-14 years) with RD. Anxiety symptoms were evaluated using the School Anxiety Scale - Teacher Report for the first year and the eight-item Spence Children's Anxiety Scale for the second year. AP was assessed by teacher ratings of progress in academic content areas, including reading, writing and math. Teachers completed evaluations every 3 months. We standardized all scores (to z scores). Multivariate linear regression models (adjusting for age, sex and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms) assessed the association cross-sectionally at each timepoint of survey completion. Repeated measures analysis using mixed models assessed the relationship longitudinally. Results from both univariate and multivariate analyses showed anxiety being significantly negatively associated with AP in children with RD, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Importantly, increased anxiety was significantly associated with reduced AP over time within an individual (adjusted ß = -0.22, p = .002). This lends support to screening for anxiety disorders in children with RD. Future research should examine the directionality of this relationship, potential mediators in the pathway and whether interventions to reduce anxiety increase AP.