Health centers in RioGrande do Sul, Brazil: from implementation toconsolidation, 1929-1943

The article analyzes the introduction, in the late 1920s, and consolidation, in the 1930s, of a public health model in Rio Grande do Sul state based on the health center model conceived in the United States. The genesis of health centers in the United States is discussed, as are two health reforms in Brazil, in 1929 and1938, proposed by Fernando de Freitas e Castro and José Bonifácio Paranhos da Costa. The investigation draws not only on the literature in the area, but also on primary sources such as legislation, state health reports, and documents producedby the Rockefeller Foundation

[Health services supply and the economic crisis: either we fund goods and services according to their value or we become bankrupt. SESPAS report 2014]. / Oferta sanitaria y crisis: financiamos los bienes y servicios según su valor o caemos en la insolvencia. Informe SESPAS 2014.

Health policy has reacted to the financial crisis by overemphasising measures targeted at reducing unit costs, increasing barriers to access (waiting lists) or closing premises. It is too soon for scientific assessment of the impact of this reshaping of supply on equity, quality and safety, and on individual and population health. Nevertheless, the emergency measures taken to achieve fiscal stabilization have shifted the focus to resolving budget problems at the expenses of sounder and deeper initiatives aimed at deciding what must be funded and how. This article advocates a policy based on selective funding of services and benefits on the basis of their value. Other countries' experiences can serve as a useful guide, including robust methods to identify technologies (or their uses) of questionable value, prioritization criteria, and careful consideration of limitations associated with the elimination of a certain benefit, especially if it affects the founding values of the system. The necessary tools are available to the Spanish health system: the regulatory framework and technical bodies able to identify lower value care, support for decision-making, and timely evaluation of such decisions. Despite the numerous hurdles, maintaining the status quo is too expensive a choice, given the opportunity costs of effectiveness and safety losses, measured in terms of equity and the economic efficiency of the Spanish health system, which may ultimately translate into worsening of the population's health status.

Novas perspectivas na gestão do sistema de saúde da Espanha / New perspectives on the management of the Spanish national health system

Ao longo dos últimos vinte e cinco anos, a organização do sistema de saúde na Espanha vem adotando diversas medidas que reorientaram seu gerenciamento, melhoraram sua eficiência e aprimoraram seu sistema de financiamento, resultado de profundas reformas e da introdução de novos instrumentos de gestão. Este artigo é resultado de uma análise documental que objetivou descrever a trajetória de conformação do sistema de saúde espanhol e sua organização na contemporaneidade. Apresenta alguns determinantes históricos que tornaram possíveis as reformas no setor sanitário, como a descentralização para o nível das Comunidades Autônomas, a incorporação de mecanismos de coordenação e a integração e o financiamento dos novos e distintos formatos organizativos coexistentes no país. Além disso, identifica desafios que emergem no cenário atual do Sistema Nacional de Saúde, como o fenômeno da imigração, o avançado processo de transição demográfica, a crescente demanda por melhorias na qualidade da atenção e de incorporação tecnológica. Todos esses fatores influem na sustentabilidade do sistema, o que motivou a criação de mais um espaço para estabelecimentos de consensos sobre o papel fundamental do sistema sanitário para o Estado de Bem-Estar espanhol.

During the last twenty-five years, the organization of the health system in Spain has adopted diverse measures that reoriented its management and improved its efficiency and financing system as a result of deep reforms and introduction of new management instruments. This paper is a result of a documental analysis that aimed to describe the trajectory of conformation of the Spanish health system and its current organization. The paper presents some historical determinants that enabled the reforms in the sanitary sector, such as the decentralization to the Autonomous Communities level, the incorporation of coordination mechanisms, and the integration and financing of the new and distinct organizational formats that coexist in the country. Furthermore, it identifies challenges that emerge in the current scenario of the National Health System, as the immigration phenomenon, the advanced process of demographic transition, and the growing demand for improvements in the quality of care and of technological incorporation. All these factors influence the sustainability of the system, which motivated the creation of one more space for the establishment of a consensus on the fundamental role of the sanitary system for the Welfare State in Spain.

Gobernanza y salud: significado y aplicaciones en América Latina / Governance and health: meaning and implications in Latin America

El término gobernanza es cada vez mas utilizado en la formulación, implementación y evaluación de políticas públicas. El propósito de este artículo es de clarificar su significado y de estudiar su utilidad en el estudio de las recientes políticas de salud de la América Latina. Después de discutir de las diferencias existentes entre gobernanza y los conceptos conexos de gestión, gobernabilidad y gobierno, proponemos la noción de la dualidad de la estructura social de Giddens para una mejor comprensión de los procesos de gobernanza. Utilizamos después este marco teórico para discutir de las implicaciones conceptuales y empíricas del grupo de trabajos sobre la gobernanza en salud en América Latina incluidos en el presente número de la Revista de Salud Pública. Reconociendo que el debate sobre gobernanza aun no está cerrado, terminamos nuestro texto subrayando las contribuciones más importantes de los trabajos revisados, a saber la importancia de la equidad en el proceso de toma de decisiones, el reconocimiento de la naturaleza política de la gobernanza, y las ventajas y limitaciones del modelo de clan en la regulación de las interacciones entre los actores implicados en la toma de decisiones políticas en salud.

The term governance is used more and more often in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of public policies. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to shed light on its meaning, and to study its applicability for the study of recent public health policies in Latin America. After discussing the differences between governance and the close concepts of management, governability and government, we propose the adoption of the notion of Giddens' duality of social structure for better understanding of the governance processes. Then we use this theoretical framework for reviewing the conceptual and empirical implications of the set of papers about governance and health in Latin America included in the present special issue of the Journal of Public Health. Recognizing that the debate on governance is not closed, we end the paper highlighting the main contributions of the revised works, namely: the importance of equity in decision-making processes, the appreciation of the political nature of governance, and the advantages and limitations of the clan mechanism of governance for regulating interactions among actors involved in the health policy decision-making processes.

Mortalidad evitable y políticas en salud: Colombia, 1985-2002 / Avoidable mortality and health policies: Colombia, 1985-2002

Introducción: La confianza en la capacidad de evitar algunas muertes o diferir su aparición es el fundamento de toda política de salud, uno de cuyos principales resultados debe ser reducir las muertes evitables, y controlar las condiciones que aumentan el riesgo de morir. Objetivos: Establecer variaciones en la tendencia de la mortalidad evitable (ME) registrada en Colombia entre 1985 y 2002, como indicadoras del impacto efectivo que las reformas en la política sanitaria pudieran haber tenido sobre sus determinantes. Métodos: Estudio de la ME con base en los registros oficiales de defunción y en las proyecciones censales de Colombia entre 1985-2002. Para determinar la evitabilidad, se aplicó un inventario de causas de ME (ICME) ajustado a las condiciones epidemiológicas del país durante el período que se analiza. Resultados: De las muertes registradas, 75.3% se clasificaron como evitables. Se identificaron siete patrones de tendencia que reflejan, de manera particular, los efectos de las políticas públicas sobre los determinantes de la mortalidad. Conclusiones: En general, la ME viene disminuyendo en Colombia desde 1985 en la población general y entre los hombres, sin variaciones significativas durante el período. Las variaciones en la tendencia de las tasas ajustadas de varios grupos de causas hacen pensar en un deterioro en el control de sus determinantes, especialmente desde 1990. Los cambios aplicados en las políticas públicas durante los últimos años no se reflejaron en un mejor control de las muertes evitables, aunque el gasto en salud aumentó de modo muy notable en el país.

Introduction: Confidence in the capacity to avoid some deaths or to defer their occurrence is the foundation of any health public policy, one of whose main results should be to reduce avoidable mortality by controlling conditions that increase the risk of dying. Objectives: To establish trend variations in avoidable mortality (AM), registered in Colombia between 1985 and 2002, as an indicator of the effective impact that recent health reforms could have produced on the determinants of mortality. Methods: This is a study of AM, based on Colombian official registries of death and census projections, between 1985 and 2002. To determine the avoidability, an inventory of causes of AM (ICAM), based on the Holland and Taucher models, was applied to the data during the period analyzed. Results: Of the number of deaths registered, 75.3% were classified as avoidable. Seven tendency patterns were identified and each of them reflects, in particular, public-policy effects on mortality determinants. Conclusions: On the whole, AM has diminished in Colombia since 1985 among the general population and among men, without significant variations during the period. The trend variations observed of adjusted rates suggest deterioration in the control of AM determinants, particularly since 1990. Public policy changes applied in Colombia during the period have not been reflected in a better control of avoidable deaths, although health expenses have increased remarkably.