Corrigendum: A multiple-baseline evaluation of acceptance and commitment therapy focused on repetitive negative thinking for comorbid generalized anxiety disorder and depression.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00356.].

Relating relational networks: An initial experimental analysis.

Studying relating of relational networks is a complex and challenging task. The main objective of the present study was to demonstrate relating within and across relational networks based on same/opposite and bigger/smaller contextual cues and establish antecedent control. After nonarbitrary pretraining of the contextual cues, two nonsense stimulus classes were established based on comparative relations. Participants were trained to select stimuli from an array of options based on a symbolic rule that established a relation between two stimuli: one of Network 1 and one of Network 2. Training involved relating Network 1 to Network 2, and testing assessed relating Network 2 to Network 1. Seven of eight participants reached the mastery criterion in training and responded accordingly in test. In a final stage, reinforcing and punishing consequences were varied systematically in the presence of two novel stimuli and antecedent control was observed for all 7 participants. Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 but using contextual cues taken from natural language, and Experiment 3 sought to understand the effects of pretraining relational responding using natural language. The mastery criteria were reached by four of seven participants in Experiment 2 and by all eight participants in Experiment 3. Future studies could develop and refine the methods employed here in analyzing the relating of relational networks, thus allowing for an increasingly sophisticated behavior-analytic account of human language and cognition.

Grappling with the Complexity of Behavioral Processes in Human Psychological Suffering: Some Potential Insights from Relational Frame Theory.

Relational frame theory (RFT) has historically been considered the basic explanatory science behind acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). However, some have argued that there has been an increasing separation between the two in recent years. The primary aim of the current article is to explore the extent to which RFT concepts, particularly those that have been proposed recently in the context of "up-dating" the theory, may be used to build stronger links between basic and applied behavior analyses in which there is a shared language of relatively precise technical terms. As an example of this strategy, we outline RFT process-based experimental and conceptual analyses of the impact of one of the most widely used sets of interventions employed in the ACT literature, defusion. In addition, we suggest a potential experimental methodology for analyzing the basic behavioral processes involved. Overall, the current article should be seen as part of a broader research agenda that aims to explore how RFT may be used to provide a functional-analytic abstractive treatment of the behavioral processes involved in human psychological suffering.

Empirical Investigation of the Verbal Cues Involved in Delivering Experiential Metaphors.

Delivering metaphors experientially has been emphasized in several psychotherapies, such as acceptance and commitment therapy. However, few research has analyzed the variables involved in the efficacy of metaphors. This experimental analog study aims to advance in this topic by analyzing the effect of two components involved in the experiential delivery of metaphors in psychotherapy. The first component is presenting the metaphor by asking the individual to imagine herself as the protagonist of the story versus presenting the metaphor in the third person (Self vs. Other). The second component is the inclusion of verbal cues prompting the relational elaboration of the rules derived from the metaphor content versus not including these prompts (Elaboration vs. No Elaboration). The effect of these components was tested in a double-blind, randomized, 2 × 2 factorial experiment that used the cold pressor task (CPT). Eighty-four participants were exposed to the CPT at the pretest. Afterward, participants were randomly assigned to four experimental protocols. The protocols were audiotaped and consisted of the same metaphor presented in four slightly different ways. Specifically, the protocol of Condition A involved a metaphor with Self and Elaboration, Condition B involved Self and No Elaboration, Condition C involved Other and Elaboration, and Condition D involved Other and No Elaboration. Then, participants were re-exposed to the CPT in the posttest. We hypothesized that Condition A (Self and Elaboration) would show a higher mean increase in pain tolerance than the remaining conditions, which would show similar results. The results were consistent with this hypothesis because Condition A showed a higher percentual increase in pain tolerance (Condition A: M = 268.21, SD = 167.47; Condition B: M = 180.86, SD = 73.01; Condition C: M = 204.81, SD = 100.19; Condition D: M = 175.41, SD = 76.00). A Bayesian informative hypothesis evaluation showed that this hypothesis obtained the highest posterior model probability. Thus, the results indicate that introducing metaphors by asking the individual to imagine herself as the protagonist of the story and providing prompts for relational elaboration might increase the therapeutic effect of the metaphor.

A Multiple-Baseline Evaluation of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Focused on Repetitive Negative Thinking for Comorbid Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Depression.

Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) is a core feature of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and depression. Recently, some studies have shown promising results with brief protocols of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) focused on RNT in the treatment of emotional disorders in adults. The current study analyzes the effect of an individual, 3-session, RNT-focused ACT protocol in the treatment of severe and comorbid GAD and depression. Six adults meeting criteria for both disorders and showing severe symptoms of at least one of them participated in the study. A delayed multiple-baseline design was implemented. All participants completed a 5-week baseline without showing improvement trends in emotional symptoms (Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale - 21; DASS-21) and pathological worry (Penn State Worry Questionnaire; PSWQ). The ACT protocol was then implemented, and a 3-month follow-up was conducted. Five of the six participants showed clinically significant changes in the DASS-21 and the PSWQ. The standardized mean difference effect sizes for single-case experimental design were very large for emotional symptoms (d = 3.34), pathological worry (d = 4.52), experiential avoidance (d = 3.46), cognitive fusion (d = 3.90), repetitive thinking (d = 4.52), and valued living (d = 0.92 and d = 1.98). No adverse events were observed. Brief, RNT-focused ACT protocols for treating comorbid GAD and depression deserve further empirical tests.

The transfer of Crel contextual control (same, opposite, less than, more than) through equivalence relations.

According to Relational Frame Theory (RFT) Crel denotes a contextual stimulus that controls a particular type of relational response (sameness, opposition, comparative, temporal, hierarchical etc.) in a given situation. Previous studies suggest that contextual functions may be indirectly acquired via transfer of function. The present study investigated the transfer of Crel contextual control through equivalence relations. Experiment 1 evaluated the transfer of Crel contextual functions for relational responses based on sameness and opposition. Experiment 2 extended these findings by evaluating transfer of function using comparative Crel stimuli. Both experiments followed a similar sequence of phases. First, abstract forms were established as Crel stimuli via multiple exemplar training (Phase 1). The contextual cues were then applied to establish arbitrary relations among nonsense words and to test derived relations (Phase 2). After that, equivalence relations involving the original Crel stimuli and other abstract forms were trained and tested (Phase 3). Transfer of function was evaluated by replacing the directly established Crel stimuli with their equivalent stimuli in the former experimental tasks (Phases 1 and 2). Results from both experiments suggest that Crel contextual control may be extended via equivalence relations, allowing other arbitrarily related stimuli to indirectly acquire Crel functions and regulate behavior by evoking appropriate relational responses in the presence of both previously known and novel stimuli.

The transfer of Cfunc contextual control through equivalence relations.

Derived relational responding is affected by contextual stimuli (Cfunc) that select specific stimulus functions. The present study investigated the transfer of Cfunc contextual control through equivalence relations by evaluating both (a) the maintenance of Cfunc contextual control after the expansion of a relational network, and (b) the establishment of novel contextual stimuli by the transfer of Cfunc contextual control through equivalence relations. Initially, equivalence relations were established and contingencies were arranged so that colors functioned as Cfunc stimuli controlling participants' key-pressing responses in the presence of any stimulus from a three-member equivalence network. To investigate the first research question, the three-member equivalence relations were expanded to five members and the novel members were presented with the Cfunc stimuli in the key-pressing task. To address the second goal of this study, the colors (Cfunc) were established as equivalent to certain line patterns. The transfer of contextual cue function (Cfunc) was tested replacing the colored backgrounds with line patterns in the key-pressing task. Results suggest that the Cfunc contextual control was transferred to novel stimuli that were added to the relational network. In addition, the line patterns indirectly acquired the contextual cue function (Cfunc) initially established for the colored backgrounds. The conceptual and applied implications of Cfunc contextual control are discussed.

Terapia de aceitação e compromisso: história, fundamentos, modelo e evidências / Acceptance and commitment therapy: history, foundations,model and evidence

Este artigo tem o objetivo de realizar uma revisão histórica e conceitual da terapia de aceitação e compromisso (ACT). Esta é uma terapia cognitivo-comportamental baseada (a) no contextualismo funcional, filosofia que visa à predição e influência do comportamento com precisão, escopo e profundidade; e (b) na teoria dos quadros relacionais, uma abordagem pós-skinneriana da linguagem e da cognição. A ACT propõe um modelo de mudança do comportamento denominado flexibilidade psicológica, que explica o funcionamento saudável e psicopatológico por meio da interação de processos psicológicos normais. As evidências de efetividade e processo sinalizam que a ACT é um sistema terapêutico promissor, diretamente orientado para a identificação de mecanismos de mudança do comportamento humano.(AU)

The objective of this study is to present a historical and conceptual review of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). It is a cognitive-behavioral therapy based (a) on functional contextualism, a philosophy aiming to predict and influence behavior with precision, scope, and depth, and (b) on relational frame theory, a post-skinnerian approach of language and cognition. ACT proposes a model of behavior change, psychological flexibility, which explains healthy and psychopathological functioning through interaction of normal psychological processes. Process and effectiveness research evidence signal that ACT is a promising therapeutic approach openly guided to identify human behavior mechanisms of change.(AU)

Análises funcionais molares associadas à terapia de aceitação e compromisso em um caso de transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo / Molar functional analyses associated to acceptance and commitment therapy in a case of obsessive-compulsive disorder

O Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (TOC) é um quadro caracterizado por obsessões e compulsões, provocando prejuízos em contextos sociais, familiares e de trabalho. O presente estudo teve como objetivo demonstrar a relevância de análises funcionais molares associadas ao instrumental da ACT, ilustrando com um caso clínico de TOC. Ao longo de 68 sessões, foi possível identificar padrões comportamentais amplos de comunicação agressiva, busca de controle e habilidade de argumentação verbal, funcionalmente relacionados ao TOC, bem como ampla sensibilidade a contextos sócio-verbais de literalidade e de dar razões, relacionados a forte padrão de esquiva experiencial. A compreensão das contingências atuais e históricas propiciaram a aceitação dos estados privados aversivos e o comprometimento com a exposição a contextos terapêuticos, no sentido de enfraquecer comportamentos funcionalmente semelhantes aos obsessivo-compulsivos, porém com menor relevância emocional, o que levou ao enfraquecimento dos sintomas de TOC e a melhorias nas relações com familiares e colegas de trabalho...

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by obsessions and compulsions, with losses in social, family and labor contexts. This study aimed to show the relevance of molar functional analyses associated to ACT interventions, illustrating it with a case of OCD. Along 68 sessions, it has been possible to identify ample behavior patterns of aggressive communication, search for control and verbal argumentation skills, functionally related to OCD symptoms, as well as ample sensitivity to social/verbal contexts of literality and reason giving, leading to a strong pattern of experiential avoidance. Understanding of current and historical contingencies led to the acceptance of aversive private states and commitment to the exposure to therapeutic contexts, in order to weaken behaviors that were functionally related to the obsessive-compulsive ones, but less emotionally relevant, which led to weakening of OCD symptoms and improvements in relationships with relatives and coworkers...

Análises funcionais molares associadas à terapia de aceitação e compromisso em um caso de transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo / Molar functional analyses associated to acceptance and commitment therapy in a case of obsessive-compulsive disorder

O Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (TOC) é um quadro caracterizado por obsessões e compulsões, provocando prejuízos em contextos sociais, familiares e de trabalho. O presente estudo teve como objetivo demonstrar a relevância de análises funcionais molares associadas ao instrumental da ACT, ilustrando com um caso clínico de TOC. Ao longo de 68 sessões, foi possível identificar padrões comportamentais amplos de comunicação agressiva, busca de controle e habilidade de argumentação verbal, funcionalmente relacionados ao TOC, bem como ampla sensibilidade a contextos sócio-verbais de literalidade e de dar razões, relacionados a forte padrão de esquiva experiencial. A compreensão das contingências atuais e históricas propiciaram a aceitação dos estados privados aversivos e o comprometimento com a exposição a contextos terapêuticos, no sentido de enfraquecer comportamentos funcionalmente semelhantes aos obsessivo-compulsivos, porém com menor relevância emocional, o que levou ao enfraquecimento dos sintomas de TOC e a melhorias nas relações com familiares e colegas de trabalho.(AU)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by obsessions and compulsions, with losses in social, family and labor contexts. This study aimed to show the relevance of molar functional analyses associated to ACT interventions, illustrating it with a case of OCD. Along 68 sessions, it has been possible to identify ample behavior patterns of aggressive communication, search for control and verbal argumentation skills, functionally related to OCD symptoms, as well as ample sensitivity to social/verbal contexts of literality and reason giving, leading to a strong pattern of experiential avoidance. Understanding of current and historical contingencies led to the acceptance of aversive private states and commitment to the exposure to therapeutic contexts, in order to weaken behaviors that were functionally related to the obsessive-compulsive ones, but less emotionally relevant, which led to weakening of OCD symptoms and improvements in relationships with relatives and coworkers.(AU)

Análisis preliminar de un protocolo para la evaluación de marcos deícticos / Preliminary Analysis of an Assessment of Deictic Frames Protocol

El propósito de esta investigación es explorar diferencias en la ejecución de tareas deícticas presentadas en el protocolo de McHugh, Barnes-Holmes y Barnes-Holmes (2004a), en relación con variaciones procedimentales que consistieron en exponer a unos participantes al protocolo en un formato de entrevista y a otros en una versión computarizada. La muestra estuvo conformada por 63 participantes entre 9 y 12 años, que fueron pareados por género, edad y nivel educativo, asignados a alguna de las condiciones de aplicación. Se calculó el número de errores cometido por cada participante y grupo de edad en cada marco deíctico y nivel de complejidad relacional, al igual que se estimó el efecto intersujetos mediante un ANOVA de dos vías con edad y versión (cara-a-cara y computador) como variables independientes y tipo de ensayo como variable dependiente. El efecto de la edad fue significativo para el caso de las relaciones invertidas ahora-antes y el de versión para las relaciones simples yo-tú y aquí-allá. En todos los grupos de edad se halló una tendencia a cometer mayor cantidad de errores en la versión computarizada en todos los tipos de ensayo. Los hallazgos se discuten en términos de confiabilidad del procedimiento y validez ecológica de las estrategias no automatizadas para la evaluación de relaciones de estímulo derivadas.

The aim of this study was to explore differences in the performance of deictic tasks presented in the protocol of McHugh, Barnes-Holmes y Barnes-Holmes (2004a) related to procedural variations that consisted of a group of participants exposed to the protocol in a face-to-face interview format, in contrast with another group exposed to the protocol in a computerized version. 63 participants (9 to 12 years old) were paired by gender, age and grade and were assigned to one of the conditions. The number of errors was calculated for each participant and age group in each of the deictic frames and levels of relational complexity and inter-subjects effects were estimated using a two-way ANOVA with age and version (face-to-face and computer) as the independent variables and trial type as the dependent variable. The effect of age was significant for reversed NOW-THEN relations and the effect of version for simple I-YOU and HERE-THERE relations. A trend to produce more errors across all trial types in the computerized version was identified. Findings are discussed in terms of procedural reliability and ecological validity of non automated strategies for the assessment of derived stimulus relations.

Relaciones deíciicas simples, toma de perspectiva y competencia socall / Simple dectic reelations, perspective-taking and social competence

En la Teoría de Marcos Relacionales (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001) se ha planteado que la toma de perspectiva se puede entender como un repertorio de respuestas relacionales deícticas personales, espaciales y temporales, derivadas y aplicables arbitrariamente. Bajo esta óptica, en esta investigación se evaluó el impacto de múltiples ejemplares de reforzamiento por responder relacional en función de claves contextuales en el establecimiento de relaciones deícticas simples y el impacto de este entrenamiento en puntajes de ToM y competencia social. Se implementó un diseño de línea de base múltiple con cuatro participantes (41 a 58 meses), residentes en una fundación de protección y restitución de derechos. Los participantes requirieron entrenamiento en relaciones personales y/o temporales, siendo éstas últimas las más difíciles de aprender a partir de contingencias de reforzamiento. No se identificó una clara relación entre cambios en el repertorio de relaciones deícticas simples y los puntajes en tareas de teoría de la mente y competencia social. Se discuten las implicaciones teóricas y metodológicas de estos hallazgos.

Relational Frame Theory (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes & Roche, 2001) states that perspective-taking can be understood as a repertoire of personal, spatial and temporal deictic relations that are derived and arbitrarily applicable. Under this rubric, this research evaluated the impact of multiple reinforcement exemplars for relational responding according to contextual cues in establishing simple deictic relations and the impact of this training on ToM and social competence scores. A multiple baseline design was implemented with four participants (41 to 58 months old) raised in an institutional setting. Participants required training in personal and/or temporal relations, the latter being harder to learn after being exposed to reinforcement contingencies. No clear relationships among changes in the deictic relations repertoire and ToM and social competence scores were identified. Theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed.

El razonamiento analógico desde el modelo de la teoría de los marcos relacionales / Analogical reasoning from the perspective of relational frame theory

El objetivo del presente trabajo es exponer una breve revisión del estudio del razonamiento analógico desde la Teoría de los Marcos Relacionales (TMR), considerando los modelos formulados hasta la actualidad y la exploración experimental. A sua vez, se abordará el estudio del desarrollo del razonamiento analógico en la infancia, surgido en el marco de las controversias generadas por los distintos enfoques de la psicología. Se expondrán los hallazgos obtenidos utilizando métodos de imágenes cerebrales desde las ciencias cognitivas. Finalmente se comentarán las posibles aplicaciones de este paradigma. Los estudios revisados acerca del razonamiento analógico desde la TMR proveen relevante evidencia empírica, principalmente en el ámbito de la evaluación y sugieren ventajas de este paradigma en comparación con aproximaciones cognitivistas. A su vez, se propone su implementación como instrumento de entrenamiento cognitivo. En conclusión, la TMR propone un modelo útil al estudio del razonamiento analógico desde la perspectiva del análisis del comportamiento.

The main goal of the present work is to summarize the Relational Frame Theory (RFT) account of analogical reasoning, reviewing theoretical models and experimental studies published so far. Additionally, developmental studies of analogical reasoning during childhood will be addressed, considering the alternative hypothesis and controversies between different psychological theories. Findings from cognitive studies using neuroimaging techniques will also be discussed. Finally, the potential applications of the paradigm will be considered. The studies reviewed about analogical reasoning from the RFT provide relevant empirical evidence, mainly in the field of assessment and suggest advantages of this paradigm compared to cognitivist approaches. In turn, its implementation is proposed as a tool for cognitive training. In conclusion, the RFT offers a useful model to study analogical reasoning from the behavior analysis perspective.

El razonamiento analógico desde el modelo de la teoría de los marcos relacionales / Analogical reasoning from the perspective of relational frame theory

El objetivo del presente trabajo es exponer una breve revisión del estudio del razonamiento analógico desde la Teoría de los Marcos Relacionales (TMR), considerando los modelos formulados hasta la actualidad y la exploración experimental. A sua vez, se abordará el estudio del desarrollo del razonamiento analógico en la infancia, surgido en el marco de las controversias generadas por los distintos enfoques de la psicología. Se expondrán los hallazgos obtenidos utilizando métodos de imágenes cerebrales desde las ciencias cognitivas. Finalmente se comentarán las posibles aplicaciones de este paradigma. Los estudios revisados acerca del razonamiento analógico desde la TMR proveen relevante evidencia empírica, principalmente en el ámbito de la evaluación y sugieren ventajas de este paradigma en comparación con aproximaciones cognitivistas. A su vez, se propone su implementación como instrumento de entrenamiento cognitivo. En conclusión, la TMR propone un modelo útil al estudio del razonamiento analógico desde la perspectiva del análisis del comportamiento.(AU)

The main goal of the present work is to summarize the Relational Frame Theory (RFT) account of analogical reasoning, reviewing theoretical models and experimental studies published so far. Additionally, developmental studies of analogical reasoning during childhood will be addressed, considering the alternative hypothesis and controversies between different psychological theories. Findings from cognitive studies using neuroimaging techniques will also be discussed. Finally, the potential applications of the paradigm will be considered. The studies reviewed about analogical reasoning from the RFT provide relevant empirical evidence, mainly in the field of assessment and suggest advantages of this paradigm compared to cognitivist approaches. In turn, its implementation is proposed as a tool for cognitive training. In conclusion, the RFT offers a useful model to study analogical reasoning from the behavior analysis perspective.(AU)

Fobia de deglutição: discussão analítico-comportamental de seus determinantes e da amplitude da mudança / Choking phobia: a behavior-analytic discussion concerning its determinants and the amplitude of change

A terapia analítico-comportamental de uma mulher de 35 anos, cujo caso foi anteriormente publicado estritamente em termos de seus aspectos psiquiátricos, é agora abordada com relação aos determinantes encontrados na história de vida da fobia de deglutição e de outras respostas da mesma classe funcional, todas envolvendo a esquiva experiencial. A psicoeducação envolveu uma detalhada análise funcional da fobia de deglutição e dos problemas de relacionamento, correlacionando numa única perspectiva ambos os fenômenos. A teoria dos quadros relacionais oferece uma possível explicação para o fato de que a cliente promoveu uma extensa e progressiva mudança no padrão alimentar e no relacionamento com pessoas significativas, após unicamente uma série de sessões de exposição gradual, com a presença do terapeuta, a diferentes grupos de alimentos, num delineamento de linha de base múltipla.

The behavior-analytic therapy of choking phobia in a 35 yrs-old woman, a case previously published focusing strictly on its psychiatric aspects, is now presented concerning specific life history determinants of both choking phobia and other responses of the same functional class, all of them involving experiential avoidance. Psychoeducation included detailed functional analysis of choking phobia and relationship problems, correlating both set of phenomena under a single perspective. By means of therapist-assisted graded exposure sessions to different sets of foods, according to a multiple baseline design, the fear subsided and ingesta returned to normal levels. In parallel, significant changes occurred in relationship patterns. Relational frame theory provides a possible explanation to the fact that the client promoted extensive and progressive changes in her eating pattern and relationship with significant others.

Fobia de deglutição: discussão analítico-comportamental de seus determinantes e da amplitude da mudança / Choking phobia: a behavior-analytic discussion concerning its determinants and the amplitude of change

A terapia analítico-comportamental de uma mulher de 35 anos, cujo caso foi anteriormente publicado estritamente em termos de seus aspectos psiquiátricos, é agora abordada com relação aos determinantes encontrados na história de vida da fobia de deglutição e de outras respostas da mesma classe funcional, todas envolvendo a esquiva experiencial. A psicoeducação envolveu uma detalhada análise funcional da fobia de deglutição e dos problemas de relacionamento, correlacionando numa única perspectiva ambos os fenômenos. A teoria dos quadros relacionais oferece uma possível explicação para o fato de que a cliente promoveu uma extensa e progressiva mudança no padrão alimentar e no relacionamento com pessoas significativas, após unicamente uma série de sessões de exposição gradual, com a presença do terapeuta, a diferentes grupos de alimentos, num delineamento de linha de base múltipla.(AU)

The behavior-analytic therapy of choking phobia in a 35 yrs-old woman, a case previously published focusing strictly on its psychiatric aspects, is now presented concerning specific life history determinants of both choking phobia and other responses of the same functional class, all of them involving experiential avoidance. Psychoeducation included detailed functional analysis of choking phobia and relationship problems, correlating both set of phenomena under a single perspective. By means of therapist-assisted graded exposure sessions to different sets of foods, according to a multiple baseline design, the fear subsided and ingesta returned to normal levels. In parallel, significant changes occurred in relationship patterns. Relational frame theory provides a possible explanation to the fact that the client promoted extensive and progressive changes in her eating pattern and relationship with significant others.(AU)

Evaluación y entrenamiento de la toma de perspectiva: una propuesta analítica funcional / Assessment and training of perspective taking: a functional analytical proposal

La toma de perspectiva difícilmente se desarrolla en los niños antes de los cuatro años de edad, según las investigaciones. Los protocolos usados hasta ahora están basados en situaciones hipotéticas con un alto nivel de abstracción y presentan un número limitado de ejemplos. Por esto, se desarrolló un protocolo para el entrenamiento de toma de perspectiva con base en situaciones reales, múltiples ejemplares y entrega de retroalimentación, manteniendo como constante las relaciones deícticas (YO-TÚ, AQUÍ-ALLÍ y AHORA-ENTONCES, simples e inversas). Bajo un diseño intrasujeto ABA, el protocolo fue efectivo para desarrollar las habilidades de toma de perspectiva en una niña de 3 años y 7 meses de edad, que no las presentaba al momento de la medición inicial. También, se analizan los datos correspondientes al número de sesiones requeridas para cada uno de los marcos y su complejidad a la luz de las investigaciones previas.

According to previous research, perspective-taking can't be easily developed before ages of four years old. Nevertheless, that studies used protocols based on hypothetical situations with a high level of abstraction and, additionally, with a limited number of examples. For this reason, a training protocol for perspective taking, based on real situations was developed. The protocol used a multiple exemplar training, and feedback was provided when was needed. Deictic frames was keeped as a constant (I-YOU, HERE-THERE and NOW-THEN, simple and reversed). An intrasubject ABA design was used in this research. It was obtained that the protocol was effective to develop the abilities of perspective taking in a girl of 3 years and 7 months old. She didn't show the abilities at the first measurement. Also the data of the number of sessions required for training each frame, and their complexity are analyzed under the light of previous research.

Transformación de funciones: Marcos de coordinación y oposición de acuerdo con equivalencia / Function transformation: Frames of coordination and opposition in equivalence relations

Esta investigación responde al interés por la dificultad que a veces tienen los sujetos para "cambiar" o "transformar" sus patrones de comportamiento. Investigaciones y teorías recientes desde el campo del análisis experimental del comportamiento y, más concretamente, desde una perspectiva de la Teoría de los Marcos Relacionales (RFT), abordan dicho fenómeno de una manera funcional y contextual. Desde este marco conceptual, el objetivo de este trabajo es establecer una historia experimental necesaria para generar repertorios de respuesta relacional de simetría y equivalencia en el marco de coordinación, y ver cómo son transformadas las funciones a un marco de oposición con base en las consecuencias que reciben los sujetos. Para ello, se diseñó y llevó a cabo un primer estudio cuyos resultados condujeron a variaciones en el procedimiento, lo que supuso la realización de un segundo experimento. La muestra estuvo compuesta de 16 sujetos, 7 en el primer experimento (5 mujeres y 2 hombres) y 9 en el segundo experimento (6 mujeres y 3 hombres) con edades comprendidas entre 20 y 40 años, quienes debían realizar una tarea de igualación a la muestra. Dicha tarea estuvo compuesta por dos fases y una evaluación final de las relaciones derivadas. La variable dependiente se definió como la ejecución del sujeto (número de ensayos) y la variable independiente como la introducción de imágenes aversivas y agradables en pro de la transformación de funciones. Finalmente, se discuten los datos intra e inter sujeto de los experimentos y algunas implicaciones prácticas.

This research is motivated by our interest in the difficulty that individuals show when trying to "change" or "convert" their behavioral patterns. Recent research and theories developed inside the experimental analysis of behavior, specifically from a Relational Framework Theory (RFT), expose that phenomenon from a functional-contextual way. From this conceptual frame, the purpose of this paper is to establish the experimental history needed to develop sets of symmetry relational responses and equivalence in the frames of sameness, and show the way the functions are transformed into a frame of opposition based upon the consequences that individuals receive. In order to achieve this goal, a first study was designed and carried out. The results obtained from this study led to several variations in the procedure and a second experiment was held. The sample was composed by 16 participants, ages between 20 and 40 who had to execute a matching-to-sample task. 7 individuals were used for the first experiment (5 females and 2 males) and 9 for the second (6 females and 3 males). The task was composed by two phases and a final evaluation of the derived relations. The dependent variable was defined as the execution of the individual (number of trials) and the independent variable as the introduction of aversive and pleasant pictures. Finally, the data obtained from both experiments is discussed intra e inter individual and some practical implications are outlined.

Comportamento verbal: uma análise da abordagem skinneriana e das extensões explicativas de Stemmer, Hayes e Sidman / Verbal Behavior: analysis of the skinnerian perspective and theexplaining extensions of Stemmer, Hayes and Sidman

Para Skinner comportamento verbal é um operante modelado e mantido por conseqüências mediadaspor outros. Portanto, poderia ser explicado por meio da descrição de relações funcionais organismoambiente. Entretanto, ao categorizar os operantes verbais Skinner não tratou satisfatoriamente com comportamentos de tipo relacional, provavelmente em função da dificuldade em determinar suas variáveis de controle. Este trabalho procurou analisar a abordagem skinneriana do comportamento verbal e três propostas que buscam ampliá-la (Stemmer, Hayes e Sidman). Stemmer amplia o alcance da explicação skinneriana descrevendo processos de aprendizagem relacional e sintático-gramaticalem termos do estabelecimento de discriminações e generalizações, enfatizando o papel de ouvintecomo condição necessária à aprendizagem de falante. Hayes e Sidman apresentam, respectivamente, a descrição de um novo tipo de operante e de um novo processo comportamental subjacente à aprendizagem de relações. Ainda que as propostas de Hayes e Sidman estejam alcançando resultados promissores no ensino de repertórios relacionais, não existe um consenso sobre quais mecanismos e processos bio-comportamentais são necessários para a aquisição e o desenvolvimento lingüístico. Sugere-se a necessidade de uma padronização conceitual no que se refere às noções de aprendizagemrelacional, classes de estímulos e classes de respostas generalizadas, visando um re-direcionamento das pesquisas sobre comportamento verbal.

Skinner defines verbal behavior as an operant shaped and maintained by consequences mediated by others. Therefore, it could be explained through the description of organism-environment functionalrelations. However, in his categorization of verbal operants Skinner didn?t treat satisfactorily withbehaviors of relational type, probably due to the difficulty to determine the controlling variables. Thiswork analyzed Skinnerian approach to verbal behavior and three proposals that aim to extend it(Stemmer, Hayes and Sidman). Stemmer extends the scope of Skinnerian explanation describingrelational and syntactic-grammatical learning processes in terms of the establishment ofdiscriminations and generalizations, emphasizing the listening role as a necessary condition to thelearning of speaking. Hayes and Sidman present, respectively, the description of a new kind of operant and a new behavioral process underlying relational learning. Although Hayes and Sidman?s proposals are reaching interesting results in teaching relational repertoires, there is not a consensus about what mechanisms and biobehavioral processes are necessary to the language acquisition and development.This work points to the need of a standardization of concepts related to the notions of relationallearning, stimuli classes formation, and generalized response classes, in order to redirect the researchon verbal behavior.