'Eradication was a dirty word': Anti-gambiae campaign, between cooperation and rivalry (1938-1940).

This article analyzes the efforts of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (IHDRF) in its project initiative that resulted in the extermination of the African mosquito Anopheles gambiae from Brazil in 1940. This species, which originated in Dakar, Senegal, was identified in the Brazilian city of Natal in 1930, where insufficient local emergency sanitation actions enabled it to spread into the interior of the Brazilian northeast, causing an unprecedented malaria epidemic in the Americas in 1938, after years of silent spread. We will analyse the formation of Brazil's Malaria Service of the Northeast (MSNE), discussing its political and scientific controversies and how the transition from the idea of extermination to the idea of eradication was consolidated in the political process of creating this successful sanitation campaign. In addition, we will discuss how the integration and transnational development of medical entomology at the time was a fundamental factor in the cooperation and challenges among scientists involved in this campaign. The international cooperation of scientists, albeit oriented towards the project of eradication of this mosquito, organised different research agendas and gained new insights into the global dissemination of mosquito-borne diseases.

Os limites do financiamento de bolsistas da Fundação Rockefeller: Maria Palmira Macedo Tito de Morais e a enfermagem internacional, 1936-1966 / Limits of the Rockefeller Foundation fellowship funding: Maria Palmira Macedo Tito de Morais and international nursing, 1936-1966

Resumo Este artigo analisa a formação internacional de Maria Palmira Macedo Tito de Morais, como bolsista da Fundação Rockefeller no campo da enfermagem, durante o Estado Novo português. Compreende-se de que forma os contextos locais influenciaram as ações da agência filantrópica internacional, o que culminou em disputas com a Organização Mundial da Saúde pela presença da enfermeira portuguesa em seus quadros. São utilizados como fonte dois dossiês sobre Maria Tito de Morais e seus dois cartões de bolsista, coletados no Rockefeller Archive Center, um relatório da Direção Geral de Saúde de Portugal e o periódico A Tribuna, consultado na Hemeroteca Digital brasileira. Conclui-se que as estratégias utilizadas pela Fundação Rockefeller, ao financiar a formação de Maria Tito de Morais com o intuito de cooptá-la para seu staff, não garantiram o controle sobre sua trajetória profissional.

Abstract The article analyses Maria Palmira Macedo Tito de Morais' international nursing education as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow, during the Portuguese Estado Novo. It studies the local contexts influence on the international philanthropic agency's actions, culminating in disputes with World Health Organization over the Portuguese nurse as staff. The sources are two dossiers on Maria Tito de Morais and her two fellowship cards collected at the Rockefeller Archive Center, a report of the Directorate-General of Health of Portugal and the journal A Tribuna, consulted at the Brazilian Digital Library. In conclusion, the Rockefeller Foundation's strategies, when funding Maria Tito de Morais' education aiming to hire her did not guarantee control over her professional trajectory.

Critical Periods in Science and the Science of Critical Periods: Canine Behavior in America.

This article offers a canine history of the "critical period" concept, situating its emergence within a growing, interdisciplinary network of canine behavior studies that connected eugenically minded American veterinarians, behavioral geneticists, and dog lovers with large institutional benefactors. These studies established both logistical and conceptual foundations for large-scale science with dogs while establishing a lingering interdependence between American dog science and eugenics. The article emphasizes the importance of dogs as subjects of ethological study, particularly in the United States, where some of the earliest organized efforts to analyze canine behavior began. Further, the article argues that the "critical period" is important not only for its lasting prominence in multiple fields of scientific inquiry, but also as a historiographical tool, one that invites reflection on the tendency of historians to emphasize a particular narrative structure of scientific advancement.

Syndemic anemia in British Malaya: An early global health encounter with hookworm and malaria co-infections in plantation workers.

With the establishment of the International Health Commission in 1913, the Rockefeller Foundation sought governmental partnerships overseas to combat hookworm disease and improve feces disposal practices. In the Madras Presidency in British India, the India Research Fund Association carried out hookworm surveys but failed in its educational efforts to improve feces disposal practices. In British Malaya, the Uncinariasis [Hookworm] Commission to the Orient discovered a syndemic of anemia among Tamil plantation laborers from the Madras Presidency and Chinese laborers from southern China who suffered from hookworm and malarial co-infections. Confronted with the apparent infeasibility of improving feces disposal practices and the obdurate fact of re-infection with hookworm after purgative treatment, the Rockefeller Foundation ended its hookworm initiative in British Malaya without advocating for programmatic intervention against syndemic anemia. The essay concludes with a reflection on the engagement of historians with the syndemic paradigm.

The International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation and the training of health professionals in Brazil: the case of Olympio da Fonseca (1920s) / A international health division da fundação rockefeller e a formação de profissionais para a saúde no brasil: o caso de olympio da fonseca (década de 1920)

Our proposal, in this paper, is to discuss the role of the International Health Division (IHD) of the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) in the training of health personnel through the fellowship program of the North American philanthropic institution and, more specifically, the Foundation’s work in training professionals linked to Brazil, highlighting the case of Olympio da Fonseca. Olympio da Fonseca was an important Brazilian researcher. Among the positions held by Fonseca, we can highlight the direction of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, between 1949 and 1953, and the organization and direction of the Brazilian Institute for Research in the Amazon (1954-1955). Several sources allow us to reflect on the professional trajectory of the doctor and his training from the RF fellowship, such as the record produced by the Foundation (Fellowship card) and an interview granted by Olympio da Fonseca to the Center for Research and Documentation of Contemporary History of Brazil (Centro de Pesquisa e Documentação de História Contemporânea do Brasil - CPDOC) of the Getúlio Vargas Foundation (FGV) in 1977.(AU)

Nossa proposta, neste artigo, é discutir a atuação da International Health Division (IHD) da Fundação Rockefeller (FR) na formação de pessoal para a saúde através do programa de concessão de bolsas de estudos da instituição filantrópica norte-americana e, mais especificamente, a atuação da Fundação na formação de profissionais vinculados ao Brasil, destacando o caso de Olympio da Fonseca. Olympio da Fonseca foi um importante pesquisador brasileiro. Entre os cargos ocupados por Fonseca, podemos destacar a direção do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, entre 1949 e 1953, e a organização e direção do Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (1954-1955). Diversas fontes nos permitem refletir sobre a trajetória profissional do médico e sua formação a partir da bolsa da FR, como a ficha produzida pela Fundação (Fellowship card) e uma entrevista concedida por Olympio da Fonseca ao Centro de Pesquisa e Documentação de História Contemporânea do Brasil (CPDOC) da Fundação Getúlio Vargas (FGV) em 1977.(AU)

The Initial Stage of Neurosurgery in China: Contributions from Peking Union Medical College Hospital.

Modern neurosurgery has been developing worldwide for more than a century, whereas in China, as stated in previous literature, only 7 decades have passed since the development of neurosurgery during the early 1950s after World War II and China's War of Liberation. However, as increasing evidence before the wars from medical records, annual hospital reports, and journal archives emerge, the history of neurosurgery in China, especially the initial stage, needs to be reassessed. The establishment of the Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH) in 1921, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, marked the start of Western medicine in China. Meanwhile, modern neurosurgery started to take root in the nation. Chinese neurosurgeons at PUMCH, Song-Tao Guan, M.D. and Yi-Cheng Zhao, M.D., both of whom graduated from PUMC and received further training abroad, made great contributions to the initial growth of Chinese neurosurgery. Although neurosurgery experienced slow and even stagnant development in China during the wars that took place from 1941-1949, the prewar period from 1921-1940 witnessed substantial improvement in operative skills, bedside education, resident training, and scientific research in neurosurgery at PUMCH, providing indispensable contributions that have allowed Chinese neurosurgery to flourish during the past 7 decades.

Educação e propaganda sanitárias: desdobramentos da formação de um sanitarista brasileiro na Fundação Rockefeller / Education and health propaganda: repercussions of a Brazilian sanitarian's training at the Rockefeller Foundation

Resumo O artigo discute a influência da formação de jovens sanitaristas na Fundação Rockefeller para as ações que desenvolveram nos cargos de chefia sanitária no Brasil. São apresentados os métodos de educação e propaganda sanitárias da instituição norte-americana e os cartazes elaborados sob orientação do médico Antônio Luis Cavalcanti de Albuquerque de Barros Barreto na Reforma Sanitária da Bahia. Após retornar da Universidade Johns Hopkins, em Baltimore, onde foi bolsista da Rockefeller entre 1921 e 1922, o médico contribuiu para a difusão nacional dos conhecimentos adquiridos internacionalmente.

Abstract This article discusses the influence that training at the Rockefeller Foundation had on the activities early-career professionals carried out in health leadership positions in Brazil. We present methods of education and health propaganda at this American institution, as well as posters prepared at the direction of the physician Antonio Luis Cavalcanti de Albuquerque de Barros Barreto during the health reform in Bahia. After returning from the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, where he received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship in 1921-1922, this doctor helped to distribute the knowledge he acquired abroad throughout Brazil.

Anopheles gambiae no Brasil: antecedentes para um " alastramento silencioso ", 1930-1932 / Anopheles gambiae in Brazil: the background to a " silent spread, " 1930-1932

Resumo O artigo analisa a chegada e identificação do mosquito africano Anopheles gambiae no Brasil em 1930 e as primeiras reações de cientistas e autoridades de saúde pública contra as epidemias de malária causadas por essa espécie. Apesar de ter sido reconhecido como perigoso vetor da malária, sua presença em território nacional foi negligenciada a partir de 1932, após ações emergenciais na capital do Rio Grande do Norte, favorecendo um alastramento silencioso que resultou em uma grande epidemia de malária em 1938. São abordadas questões científicas e políticas que contribuíram para que o combate ao mosquito fosse colocado em segundo plano nas articulações entre a Divisão Sanitária Internacional da Fundação Rockefeller e autoridades brasileiras até 1937.

Abstract The article analyzes the arrival and identification of the African mosquito Anopheles gambiae in Brazil in 1930, and the initial reactions of scientists and public health authorities against the epidemics of malaria caused by this species. Although this mosquito was recognized as a dangerous vector of malaria, its presence in Brazil was neglected after initial emergency actions in the city of Natal in 1932; this encouraged it to spread silently, resulting in a major malaria epidemic in 1938. This article examines scientific and political issues which caused the fight against mosquitoes to be pushed into the background until 1937 in cooperative efforts between the Rockefeller Foundation's International Health Division and the Brazilian authorities.

A formação inicial de Antônio Luis Cavalcanti de Albuquerque de Barros Barreto: uma trajetória rumo à saúde internacional / The early training of Antônio Luis Cavalcanti de Albuquerque de Barros Barreto: an itinerary to the international health

Resumo Analisa a formação do médico Antônio Luis Cavalcanti de Albuquerque de Barros Barreto, com passagens pela Faculdade de Medicina do Rio de Janeiro e pelo Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, bem como sua atuação na divulgação do projeto da Fundação Rockefeller no Brasil. A partir de testamento, relatos orais, tese de doutoramento e notícias de jornais, é possível compreender as especificidades da turma de 1913 do Curso de Aplicação do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz e como seus estudantes estiveram articulados em ações relativas ao projeto de saúde internacional. O texto evidencia que a defesa dos acordos com a Fundação Rockefeller podia causar controvérsias, negociações e concessões em estados onde ela ainda não havia penetrado, como ocorreu em Pernambuco.

Abstract The article analyzes the education and training of the physician Antônio Luis Cavalcanti de Albuquerque de Barros Barreto, who studied at both the Rio de Janeiro Faculty of Medicine and Oswaldo Cruz Institute and who promoted the Rockefeller Foundation's project in Brazil. An examination of a will, oral accounts, Barros Barreto's medical thesis, and newspaper reports reveals characteristics of the class of 1913 at the Oswaldo Cruz Institute Specialization Program and shows how these students engaged in the foundation's international health initiatives. The text demonstrates how the idea of partnering with the foundation fueled controversies, impelled negotiations, and led to concessions in states where the foundation had yet to establish its presence, as in Pernambuco.

'Connecting the dots' for generating a momentum for Universal Health Coverage in Bangladesh: findings from a cross-sectional descriptive study.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to explore how and whether, the strategic grants made by the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) in different sectors of health systems in the inception phase were able to 'connect the dots' for 'generating a momentum for Universal Health Coverage (UHC)' in the country. DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study, using document review and qualitative methods. SETTING: Bangladesh, 17 UHC-related projects funded by the RF Transforming Health Systems (THS) initiative during 2010-2013. DATA: Available reports of the completed and on-going UHC projects, policy documents of the government relevant to UHC, key-informant interviews and feedback from grant recipients and relevant stakeholders in the policy and practice. OUTCOME MEASURES: Key policy initiatives undertaken for implementing UHC activities by the government post grants disbursement. RESULTS: The RF THS grants simultaneously targeted and connected the academia, the public and non-profit development sectors and news media for awareness-building and advocacy on UHC, develop relevant policies and capacity for implementation including evidence generation. This strategy helped relevant stakeholders to come together to discuss and debate the core concepts, scopes and modalities of UHC in an attempt to reach a consensus. Additionally, experiences gained from implementation of the pilot projects helped in identifying possible entry points for initiating UHC activities in a low resource setting like Bangladesh. CONCLUSIONS: During early years of UHC-related activities in Bangladesh, strategic investments of the RF THS initiative played a catalytic role in sensitising and mobilising different constituencies for concerted activities and undertaking necessary first steps. Learnings from this strategy may be of help to countries under similar conditions of 'low resource, apparent commitment, but poor governance,' on their journey towards UHC.

[A petition to American philanthropist for the donation of an American hospital in Tianjin].

At the dawn of the Republic of China, a group of doctors, educators, businessmen, officials, and the America returned Students in Tianjin jointly submitted a petition to American philanthropist for donation of a large-scale modern hospital. This petition, appended to a report to Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, has long been neglected by researchers. The memorandum may be informative to study local medical service at a transition period, and also helps understand the establishment and subsequent contribution of China Medical Board.

Research environment of clinician-scientists in China in health policy/health services research.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to describe the research environment of scientists in health services and policy research in China. STUDY DESIGN: Study was conducted during the 2016 Westlake Youth Forum with grantees of China Medical Board and key informants. Mixed methods used anonymous, survey of grantees, semistructured open-ended interviews with randomly selected awardees, convenience samples of extramural reviewers, and senior scientists with research experience in China. RESULTS: Among 51 awardees, 34 responded fully. Fifty percent were women, averaged 42 years; 88% had PhD/MD and 10 years from their advanced degree. Most had overseas research training (94%); 32% held overseas degrees. Their mean salary, $24,000, barely qualifying as middle class in China. Their confidence using analytical techniques were variable. Their interaction with those using their work seemed nascent. Interviewees echo young researchers elsewhere: lack of mentors, statistical consultation, collaborators, and help to run the gauntlet of requirements in doing research. CONCLUSION: China's health has improved dramatically since 1949. As the ecology of disease change, expectations increase, and services grow, the expertise to evaluate and improve health care needs to expand. This requires recognition of their importance and a concerted effort to recruit, nurture, and sustain this cadre.

State Hygiene School as a Department of Education in the National Institute of Hygiene in Warsaw

The article presents the history of the establishment of the State School of Hygiene (PSH) in Poland after the First World War. The difficulties faced by the public health service in a country destroyed by war and created after the reunification of the lands, which for over 150 years remained under the control of three powers, were pointed out. It discusses how the foundations of modern teaching in the field of public health were created in the National Institute of Hygiene (PZH) in Warsaw, an institution to which the Ministry of Public Health entrusted tasks related to health education in the country. The State School of Hygiene was built by the Polish Government with a significant financial contribution from the John Davison Rockefeller Foundation. The official opening ceremony took place on 20 April 1926. The State School of Hygiene in Warsaw was the first such school in Europe. It educated professional staff for the health service in Poland, especially sanitary physicians, sanitary inspectors, nurses and staff to work in health offices. The importance and scope of influence of the State School of Hygiene as the Department of Education in the National Institute of Hygiene was constantly increasing, as evidenced by the number of students (about 800 per year) participating in courses, especially in the first years after its establishment. By the end of 1935, 6,389 students had completed the courses, including 1,900 physicians. Apart from the teaching activities, the State School of Hygiene also carried out research work. The State School of Hygiene was supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, which funded scholarships for the employees of the National Institute of Hygiene at university centers in the USA

Creating a new psychiatry: on the origins of non-institutional psychiatry in the USA, 1900-50.

This paper examines the early origins of the shift away from institutional psychiatry in the USA. It focuses on the period between 1900 and 1950. Attention is paid to the role of neurologists and disaffected asylum doctors in the early emergence of extra-institutional practice; to the impact of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene and Thomas Salmon; to the limited role of psychoanalysis during most of this period; and to the influence of the Rockefeller Foundation's decision to focus most of its effort in the medical sciences on psychiatry.

Stanley Cobb, the Rockefeller Foundation and the evolution of American psychiatry.

Stanley Cobb founded the Harvard Departments of Neurology (1925) and Psychiatry (1934) with Rockefeller Foundation funding. Cobb was an important transitional figure in both neurology and psychiatry. He and his friend Alan Gregg were the most visible parts of the Rockefeller Foundation psychiatry project, which prepared American psychiatry for the rapid growth of psychiatric research after World War II. Edward Shorter called him the founder of American biological psychiatry, but this misunderstands Cobb and the Hegelian evolution of twentieth-century American psychiatry. I review the major role of the Rockefeller Foundation in the evolution of American academic psychiatry and the disappearance of Cobb's teaching and that of his mentor Adolf Meyer, a founding father of American academic psychiatry.

[Thomas Cochrane, an extraordinary British medical missionary in modern China].

In February 1906, Union Medical College (UMC, Peking) held the opening ceremony. The establishment and operation of the College was mostly attributed to Thomas Cochrane (1866-1953) from London Missionary Society. As a medical missionary in China, Cochrane lived through the dramatic political and social changes in the modern history of China and the world.As an English medical missionary, he witnessed and experienced the extreme poverty and severe shortage of medicine of the Chinese people when he was in Chaoyang, Liaoning Province, most inhabited by the Mongolian ethnic group. Then, he survived the Boxer Movement which with great resentment toward Christianity massacred the Chinese and foreign missionaries. After that, he approached to and then won over the trust and appreciation of the highest ruler of the Qing Dynasty. After the establishment of Republic of China, he handed over in person the college established by himself to the philanthropic organization of American capitalist. Cochrane's less than 30 years of life in China mirrored the great political, social, healthy, educational, intellectual, and ideological changes in China that shaped the medicine and health at the turn of the 20(th) century.

The black scourge? Race and the Rockefeller Foundation's tuberculosis commission in interwar Jamaica / O "flagelo negro"? Raça e a comissão de tuberculose da Fundação Rockefeller na Jamaica do entreguerras

From 1927 to 1942, the Rockefeller Foundation ran a tuberculosis commission in Jamaica that researched the epidemiology of the disease, examined the efficacy of a vaccine with heat-killed tubercle bacilli, and offered basic treatment to tuberculosis sufferers. Drawing upon diaries and scientific writings by the staff employed by the commission, among other sources, this article explores the role that race played in the tuberculosis commission. It assesses how race shaped the research conducted by the commission, how it informed staff interactions and staff/patient relations, and the clash and/or confluence of "imported" and local racial ideas in the commission's work.

De 1927 a 1942, a Fundação Rockefeller criou uma comissão da tuberculose na Jamaica que pesquisou a epidemiologia da doença, verificou a eficácia de uma vacina com bacilos da tuberculose que morriam com o calor e ofereceu tratamento básico para pacientes com tuberculose. Com base em anotações e textos científicos do grupo contratado para a tarefa, este artigo investiga a função da raça na comissão da tuberculose. Ele avalia como a raça moldou a pesquisa conduzida, como ela informou interações na equipe e relações equipe/paciente, e o confronto e/ou a confluência de ideias raciais "importadas" e locais no trabalho da comissão.

[A Long Stream: The Historical Influence of Peking Union Medical College on the Development of Modern Nursing Education in Taiwan].

The faculty of Peiping Union Medical College (PUMC) formatively influenced the development of modern nursing in Taiwan. PUMC, which retreated with the national government to Taiwan from Mainland China in 1949, was initially established earlier in that century by enthusiastic medical missionaries and later reformed by the Rockefeller Foundation. After relocating to Taiwan, PUMC teachers and graduates have provided critical leadership in disseminating modern nursing education in Taiwan and in integrating public health and clinical services to establish a solid foundation for Taiwanese nursing education. To highlight the significant contributions of PUMC alumni in Taiwan, this article explores three dimensions as follows: 1) Establishing the foundation of modern nursing education in Taiwan; 2) Channeling aids from the United States and the international communities to improve nursing education; and 3) Raising the international profile and influence of the Taiwan nursing society. In celebration of the centennial anniversary of PUMC, we encourage in the spirit of PUMC congeniality greater Cross-Strait collaboration among elite professionals in order to further advance PUMC leadership in Asian medical education and cultural enlightenment.

From working collections to the World Germplasm Project: agricultural modernization and genetic conservation at the Rockefeller Foundation.

This paper charts the history of the Rockefeller Foundation's participation in the collection and long-term preservation of genetic diversity in crop plants from the 1940s through the 1970s. In the decades following the launch of its agricultural program in Mexico in 1943, the Rockefeller Foundation figured prominently in the creation of world collections of key economic crops. Through the efforts of its administrators and staff, the foundation subsequently parlayed this experience into a leadership role in international efforts to conserve so-called plant genetic resources. Previous accounts of the Rockefeller Foundation's interventions in international agricultural development have focused on the outcomes prioritized by foundation staff and administrators as they launched assistance programs and especially their characterization of the peoples and "problems" they encountered abroad. This paper highlights instead how foundation administrators and staff responded to a newly emergent international agricultural concern-the loss of crop genetic diversity. Charting the foundation's responses to this concern, which developed only after agricultural modernization had begun and was understood to be produced by the successes of the foundation's own agricultural assistance programs, allows for greater interrogation of how the foundation understood and projected its central position in international agricultural research activities by the 1970s.

Private actors, global health and learning the lessons of history.

Private business and philanthropic organizations have played a prominent role in the response to the Ebola outbreak in West Africa and the support of global health governance more broadly. While this involvement may appear to be novel or unprecedented, this article argues that this active role for private actors and philanthropies actually mirrors the historical experience of cross-border health governance in the first half of the twentieth century. By examining the experiences, roles and criticisms of the Rockefeller Foundation's International Health Division and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, it is possible to identify potential opportunities for better cooperation between public and private actors in global health governance.