Drying kinetics, thermodynamic properties and physicochemical characteristics of Rue leaves.

Generally, medicinal plants are harvested with high amount of water, so it is essential to subject the product to drying as soon as possible to prevent degradation before application. Most compounds from medicinal plants are sensitive to drying processes, so it is important to adjust the drying conditions. The objective of this study was to describe the drying of Rue (Ruta chalepensis L.) leaves, select the models that best fit each drying condition, determine the activation energy and thermodynamic properties of the leaves, and evaluate their quality after drying. Leaves were harvested with moisture content of 3.55 ± 0.05 kg water kg-1dry matter and subjected to drying at temperatures of 40, 50, 60 and 70 °C. Valcam model showed the best fit to represent the drying kinetics of Rue leaves at temperatures of 40 and 70 °C, and Midilli model proved to be better for the temperatures of 50 and 60 °C. Effective diffusion coefficient increased linearly with the increase in drying air temperature, and the activation energy was 60.58 kJ mol-1. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy values ranged from 57.973 to 57.723 kJ mol-1, from - 0.28538 to - 0.28614 kJ mol-1 K-1 and from 147.34 to 155.91 kJ mol-1, respectively, for the temperature range of 40-70 °C. Drying air temperature promoted darkening or tendency to loss of green color; increase in drying air temperature leads to greater discoloration, as well as a higher concentration of total phenolic compounds (about 221.10 mg GAE mL-1 g-1 dm), with a peak at temperature of 60 °C.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activity of Ruta chalepensis L. Ethanolic Extract.

Ruta chalepensis L. is a versatile herb used in culinary arts and traditional medicine. The study aimed to determine the chemical composition of an ethanolic extract from R. chalepensis and the total phenolic and flavonoid content. Additionally, the extracts' antimicrobial and antioxidant activities were tested. The disc diffusion method and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were used to test the antibacterial properties on four types of bacteria: Escherichia coli, Proteus penneri, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus. A colorimetric assay was used to evaluate the total phenolic and flavonoid content, and the DPPH method was used to assess the antioxidant activity. The phytochemical constituents were determined using LC-MS/MS. The results indicated that R. chalepensis ethanolic extract had 34 compounds, and the predominant compounds were quercetin (9.2 %), myricetin (8.8 %), and camphene (8.0 %). Moreover, the extract had a good level of polyphenols and flavonoids, as demonstrated by inhibiting free radicals (DPPH) (IC50 was 41.2±0.1). Also, the extract exhibited robust antimicrobial activity against P. penneri and S. aureus with an MIC of 12.5 and 25.0 µg/mL, respectively. In conclusion, the results suggest that the R. chalepensis ethanolic extract has good antioxidant and antibacterial properties that could be utilized to develop new antibacterial agents.

The efficiency of fabricated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite using Ruta chalepensis L. leaf extract as a potent protoscolicidal and anti-hydatid cysts agent.

BACKGROUND: As a consequence of their eco-friendliness, simplicity and non-toxicity, the fabrication of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles using greener chemistry has been a highly attractive research area over the last decade. AIM: In this study focused on the fabrication of silver-Zinc oxide nanocomposite (Ag-ZnO NCs) using Ruta chalepensis leaf extract and evaluating its potential biological activities, against Echinococcus granulosus in an in vitro and in vivo model using BALB/c mice. METHODS: In this study, the synthesis of Ag-ZnO NCs was accomplished using local R. chalepensis leaf extracts. The synthesized nanocomposites were identified using UV-Vis, SEM-EDX, XRD, and FTIR. For a short-term assessment of acute toxicity, BALB/c mice were given the prepared NCs orally. Dual sets of mice were also intraperitoneally injected with protoscoleces for secondary echinococcosis infection. Furthermore, a blood compatibility test was carried out on the nanocomposites. RESULTS: The synthesized Ag-ZnO NCs presented a surface plasmon peak at 329 and 422 nm. The XRD, SEM, and EDX confirmed the purity of the Ag-ZnO NCs. The FTIR spectra indicated the formation of Ag-ZnO NCs. Compared to the untreated infected mice, the treated-infected animals displayed an alteration in the appearance of the hepatic hydatid cysts from hyaline to whitish cloudy with a rough surface appearance. Lysis of RBCs at various doses of Ag-ZnONCs was significantly less than the positive contro,. CONCLUSION: These findings revealed that the Ag-ZnO NCs didn't cause any adverse symptoms and no mortality was observed in all administered groups of mice. The obtained outcomes confirmed that concentrations of up to 40 µg/mL of the bio-fabricated Ag-ZnONCs induced no notable harm to the red blood cells.

Ruta chalepensis L. In Vitro Cultures as a Source of Bioactive Furanocoumarins and Furoquinoline Alkaloids.

Recently, due to the decreasing areas of cultivation and climate change, the use of biotechnological methods to obtain biomass, which is a source of valuable bioactive metabolites, is becoming more and more interesting. In this study, Ruta chalepensis in vitro cultures were investigated in RITA® temporary immersion bioreactors. Biomass growth and the production of secondary metabolites in 4- and 5-week growth cycles on three variants of the Linsmaier and Skoog (LS) medium (naphthyl-1-acetic acid/6-benzylaminopurine (NAA/BAP): 0.5/1.0, 0.1/0.1, and 1.0/1.0 mg/L) were analyzed. Using high-performance liquid chromatography of methanolic extracts of biomass, the presence of linear furanocoumarins (bergapten, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, psoralen, and xanthotoxin) and furoquinoline alkaloids (γ-fagarine, 7-isopentenyloxy-γ-fagarine, and skimmianine) was confirmed. The highest content of linear furanocoumarins (1170 mg/100 g DW (dry weight)) was observed in the LS medium variant containing 0.5/1.0 mg/L NAA/BAP (4-week growth cycle). The highest content of furoquinoline alkaloids (449 mg/100 g DW) was observed in the LS medium variant containing 0.1/0.1 mg/L NAA/BAP (5-week growth cycle). Hence, R. chalepensis bioreactor cultures may be used as a biotechnological source of linear furanocoumarins (xanthotoxin and bergapten) and furoquinoline alkaloids (skimmianine and γ-fagarine).

Headspace Solid Phase Micro-Extraction of Volatile Constituents Produced from Saudi Ruta chalepensis and Molecular Docking Study of Potential Antioxidant Activity.

Ruta chalepensis L., commonly known as Shazab in Saudi Arabia, is one of the famous culinary plants belonging to the Rutaceae family. It is commonly used in ethnomedicine in treating numerous diseases. This study was performed to characterize the essential oil isolated from Saudi species using a relatively new advanced headspace solid-phase microextraction technique. Following that, the antioxidant activity of the extracted oil was assessed using in vitro techniques such as the DPPH and nitric oxide scavenging tests, as well as the reducing power FRAP study and the molecular docking tool. The essential oil yield of the dried plant was 0.83% (v/w). Gas chromatography joined with a mass spectrometer was used to determine the chemical composition of the pale-yellow essential oil. Sixty-eight constituents were detected, representing 97.70% of the total oil content. The major constituents were aliphatic ketones dominated by 2-undecanone (37.30%) and 2-nonanone (20.00%), with minor constituents of mono and sesquiterpenoids chemical classes. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase is one of the major causes of many contemporary diseases due to its ability to create a reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, molecular docking was used to confirm that some oil phytoconstituents have good docking scores compared to the standard antioxidant drug (Vitamin C), indicating great binding compatibility between the (NADPH) oxidase receptor site and the ligand. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the oil could be used safely and as a cost-effective remedy in treating various modern diseases caused by free radical formation.

Potential Protective Effects of Ruta Chalepensis L. Extracts Against Gentamicin-Induced Nephrotoxicity via Reduction on Apoptotic, DNA Damage and Oxidative Stress Markers in Mice.

In this study, the protective effects of Ruta chalepensis L. extracts on the extent of tissue damage in gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity have been investigated. Ruta chalepensis L. extracts were prepared by subcritical water and ultrasound-assisted organic solvent extraction methods. Protective activity of Ruta chalepensis L. extracts on Gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity is investigated by apoptotic, DNA damage, oxidative stress markers and evaluating histopathological in kidney tissue of mice. Gentamicin significantly increased Caspase-3 and -8 activities, NO levels, serum creatinine and BUN, while 8-OHdG and MDA levels were significantly decreased with Ruta chalepensis L. extract treatment. In addition, Ruta chalepensis L. extracts treatment significantly increased CAT and SOD activities. Histopathological alterations in Gentamicin group were significantly diminished by application of Ruta chalepensis L. extracts. These results suggest that treatment with Ruta chalepensis L. extracts may ameliorate renal dysfunction and structural damage through the reduction of oxidative stress and apoptosis in the kidney.

Phytochemical Characterization, and Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Agitated Cultures of Three Rue Species: Ruta chalepensis, Ruta corsica, and Ruta graveolens.

The in vitro cultures of the following three species of the genus Ruta were investigated: R. chalepensis, R. corsica, and R. graveolens. The dynamics of biomass growth and accumulation of secondary metabolites in the 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-week growth cycle were analysed. The antioxidant capacity of the methanol extracts obtained from the biomass of the in vitro cultures was also assessed by different in vitro assays: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil (DPPH), reducing power, and Fe2+ chelating activity assays. Moreover, a preliminary screening of the antimicrobial potential of the extracts was performed. The extracts were phytochemically characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which highlighted the presence of linear furanocoumarins (bergapten, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, psoralen, and xanthotoxin) and furoquinoline alkaloids (γ-fagarine, 7-isopentenyloxy-γ-fagarine, and skimmianine). The dominant group of compounds in all the cultures was coumarins (maximum content 1031.5 mg/100 g DW (dry weight), R. chalepensis, 5-week growth cycle). The results of the antioxidant tests showed that the extracts of the three species had varied antioxidant capacity: in particular, the R. chalepensis extract exhibited the best radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 1.665 ± 0.009 mg/mL), while the R. graveolens extract displayed the highest chelating property (IC50 = 0.671 ± 0.013 mg/mL). Finally, all the extracts showed good activity against Staphylococcus aureus with MIC values of 250 µg/mL for the R. corsica extract and 500 µg/mL for both R. graveolens and R. chalepensis extracts.

Ruta Chalepensis Full Extract and Organic Phases Exhibit Nematocidal Activity Against Haemonchus Contortus Eggs and Infective Larvae (L3).

The ovicidal and larvicidal effect of a full aqueous extract (FE) and two phases: an aqueous (Aq-Ph) and an ethyl acetate (EtOAc-Ph) from Ruta chalepensis (Rc) stems and leaves against Haemonchus contortus (Hc) were assessed. The egg hatching inhibition (EHI) assay and larval mortality (LM) test were performed by triplicate in 96-well micro-titration plates (n=4 wells). The FE against Hc eggs and larvae was assessed at 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 mg/mL; and 30, 60, 90, 120,150 and 200 mg/ mL, respectively. The ovicidal effect of Aq-F and EtOAc-F was assessed at 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 mg/mL. Plates were incubated at 28 °C for 48 (ovicidal assay) and 72 h (larvicidal assay). The EHI results were considered based on the mean number of eggs hatching failure after 48 h exposure. The LM was recorded after 72 h exposure to the Rc phases and expressed as mortality percentage. The Rc FE caused 96 and 100% EHI at 10 and 20 mg/mL, respectively; meanwhile, 74% LM was recorded at 200 mg/mL (p<0.05). The Aq-Ph showed 78.5% EHI at 2.5 mg/mL. Likewise, the EtOAc-Ph caused 100% EHI in almost all concentrations. Eighteen compounds including alkaloids, cumarins, triterpens, flavonoids, tannins, saponins and sterols were identified by GC-MS analysis. The results indicate that the aqueous extract from Rc possesses bioactive compounds with in vitro nematocidal activity against Hc; mainly in the EtOAc-Ph. Further studies should be performed to elucidate those compounds searching for alternative methods of control of the sheep haemonchosis.

Ruta Essential Oils: Composition and Bioactivities.

Ruta L. is a typical genus of the citrus family, Rutaceae Juss. and comprises ca. 40 different species, mainly distributed in the Mediterranean region. Ruta species have long been used in traditional medicines as an abortifacient and emmenagogue and for the treatment of lung diseases and microbial infections. The genus Ruta is rich in essential oils, which predominantly contain aliphatic ketones, e.g., 2-undecanone and 2-nonanone, but lack any significant amounts of terpenes. Three Ruta species, Ruta chalepensis L., Ruta graveolens L., and Ruta montana L., have been extensively studied for the composition of their essential oils and several bioactivities, revealing their potential medicinal and agrochemical applications. This review provides a systematic evaluation and critical appraisal of publications available in the literature on the composition and bioactivities of the essential oils obtained from Ruta species and includes a brief outlook of the potential applications of nanotechnology and chitosan-based products of Ruta essential oils.

Ethnobotany of the Aegadian Islands: safeguarding biocultural refugia in the Mediterranean.

BACKGROUND: The Aegadian Islands are located west of Trapani, Sicily. Once the site of bountiful tuna fisheries and fruit orchards (plums, peaches, apricots), grapevines, prickly pears, and grains, the local economy is now based on tourism, and many traditional agricultural and maritime practices have been abandoned. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the state of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) concerning the use of wild and cultivated plants and fungi for human health, food, maritime, and agricultural purposes on the islands of Levanzo, Favignana, and Marettimo and compare present-day practices with those documented in the past. METHODS: In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted in Italian with 48 participants with prior informed consent from May 2016 to July 2017 and October 2018. Herbarium voucher specimens of wild species were collected for herbarium deposit. A rigorous literature review of scientific and other local reports on TEK of wild flora and their application in food, health, and household applications was undertaken for the purpose of comparing findings from this field study with prior reports. RESULTS: A total of 122 plant and five fungal taxa representing 54 families were cited for 355 uses. Among the most pervasive species in the landscape, Agave americana and A. sisalana had diverse applications in the past, which ranged from cordage for agricultural and maritime applications to tools for sewing, eating land snails, and constructing furniture. Fields of Ferula communis also dominate the landscape, and the dry stems were used extensively in furniture making; this species also serves as an environmental indicator for the location of the most preferred edible mushrooms, Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae. Other important flora included topical medicinal applications of Glaucium flavum for hematomas and Artemisia arborescens for ritual bathing of newborns. CONCLUSION: While many plant-based traditions have disappeared from daily practice, especially those related to traditional fishing and health practices, they remain in the memories of the eldest subset of the population. Documenting this knowledge before it disappears from oral history is a key factor in reducing loss of TEK and biocultural diversity, safeguarding the role of the Aegadian Islands as biocultural refugia.

Chalepin and Chalepensin: Occurrence, Biosynthesis and Therapeutic Potential.

Dihydrofuranocoumarin, chalepin (1) and furanocoumarin, chalepensin (2) are 3-prenylated bioactive coumarins, first isolated from the well-known medicinal plant Ruta chalepensis L. (Fam: Rutaceae) but also distributed in various species of the genera Boenminghausenia, Clausena and Ruta. The distribution of these compounds appears to be restricted to the plants of the family Rutaceae. To date, there have been a considerable number of bioactivity studies performed on coumarins 1 and 2, which include their anticancer, antidiabetic, antifertility, antimicrobial, antiplatelet aggregation, antiprotozoal, antiviral and calcium antagonistic properties. This review article presents a critical appraisal of publications on bioactivity of these 3-prenylated coumarins in the light of their feasibility as novel therapeutic agents and investigate their natural distribution in the plant kingdom, as well as a plausible biosynthetic route.

Anti-MRSA Constituents from Ruta chalepensis (Rutaceae) Grown in Iraq, and In Silico Studies on Two of Most Active Compounds, Chalepensin and 6-Hydroxy-rutin 3',7-Dimethyl ether.

Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae), a perennial herb with wild and cultivated habitats, is well known for its traditional uses as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic agent, and in the treatment of rheumatism, nerve diseases, neuralgia, dropsy, convulsions and mental disorders. The antimicrobial activities of the crude extracts from the fruits, leaves, stem and roots of R. chalepensis were initially evaluated against two Gram-positive and two Gram-negative bacterial strains and a strain of the fungus Candida albicans. Phytochemical investigation afforded 19 compounds, including alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoid glycosides, a cinnamic acid derivative and a long-chain alkane. These compounds were tested against a panel of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains, i.e., ATCC 25923, SA-1199B, XU212, MRSA-274819 and EMRSA-15. The MIC values of the active compounds, chalepin (9), chalepensin (10), rutamarin (11), rutin 3'-methyl ether (14), rutin 7,4'-dimethyl ether (15), 6-hydroxy-rutin 3',7-dimethyl ether (16) and arborinine (18) were in the range of 32-128 µg/mL against the tested MRSA strains. Compounds 10 and 16 were the most active compounds from R. chalepensis, and were active against four out of six tested MRSA strains, and in silico studies were performed on these compounds. The anti-MRSA activity of compound 16 was comparable to that of the positive control norfloxacin (MICs 32 vs 16 µg/mL, respectively) against the MRSA strain XU212, which is a Kuwaiti hospital isolate that possesses the TetK tetracycline efflux pump. This is the first report on the anti-MRSA property of compounds isolated from R. chalepensis and relevant in silico studies on the most active compounds.

Pharmacological and toxicological effects of Ruta chalepensis L. on experimentally induced seizures and electroencephalographic spectral power in mice.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae) is used in traditional medicine to treat a wide variety of disorders such as rheumatism, fever, mental disorders, dropsy, neuralgia, menstrual problems, anxiety, and epilepsy. AIM OF THE STUDY: To evaluate and compare the anticonvulsant properties of an aqueous extract and ethyl acetate (AcOEt) fraction of R. chalepensis on pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures and maximal electroshock (MES) test in mice, by analyzing behavior and electroencephalogram (EEG), as well as GABAA receptors involvement. METHODS: The effect of an acute administration of different dosage of the aqueous extract (300 or 500 mg/kg) or AcOEt fraction (100, 300, 500 or 1000 mg/kg) of R. chalepensis was explored on two different models of acute seizure induction in mice, the PTZ and maximal electroshock (MES) tests. Behavioral and electrographic effects were quantified. Additionally, the possible involvement of the GABAA receptors was explored in the presence of picrotoxin (a non-competitive antagonist of the GABAA receptor). RESULTS: AcOEt fraction of R. chalepensis was more efficient than aqueous extract to reduce the incidence of tonic-clonic seizures and mortality in a significant and dose-dependent manner in both the PTZ and MES tests. This anticonvulsant effect was not abolished in the presence of picrotoxin. The EEG spectral power analysis revealed that aqueous extract decreased alpha and beta power, while AcOEt fraction decreased alpha and gamma power confirming previous findings of its depressant effect in the central nervous system. It is important to mention that the highest dosage of the AcOEt (1000 mg/kg) produced a severe suppression or isoelectric EEG activity (EEG flattening), recognized as a comatose state, suggesting a neurotoxic effect at this dosage. CONCLUSION: Our data reinforce that depressant and anticonvulsant effects of R. chalepensis depend in part on the presence of constituents from medium polarity. We also found that anticonvulsant effect is not mediated by GABAA receptors. In addition, cautious is emphasized when high doses of this natural product are used in traditional medicine since it might produce neurotoxic effects.

Production of the herb Ruta chalepensis L. expressing amyloid ß-GFP fusion protein.

The herb Ruta chalepensis L. exhibits medical effects, such as anti-inflammatory, central nervous system depressant, and antipyretic activities. However, a genetic transformation method has not yet been developed for this species. In this paper, a simple and efficient tissue culture and genetic transformation system for R. chalepensis is reported. An amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) gene, which is considered to be a causative agent of Alzheimer's disease (AD), fused with green-fluorescent protein (GFP), was introduced into R. chalepensis. When the leaves of R. chalepensis expressing Aß-GFP were administered orally to C57BL/6J mice, serum anti-Aß antibody titers of several mice were elevated without the use of an adjuvant. These results indicated that an oral vaccine against AD using R. chalepensis may be feasible. R. chalepensis is rich in bioactive compounds that may have synergistic effects with the vaccine for AD. Plant-derived vaccines are safer and cheaper than those produced from animal cells or microbes, because plants can serve as biofactories at low cost and with high biosynthetic capacity.

Phytochemical contents and biological evaluation of Ruta chalepennsis L. growing in Saudi Arabia.

Phytochemical screening of Ruta chalepensis L. exhibited the presence of different chemical groups. The dried aerial parts of the plant was total extracted by ethanol and successively using chloroform, ethyl acetate and Butanol, out of the successive extracts four compounds namely, scopletin, kaempferol, quercetin, quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamno glucopyranosyl (Rutin) were isolated and biological evaluations. Total ethanol and successive extracts; chloroform, ethyl acetate and Butanol were produced excellent antimicrobial activities against gram negative bacteria, gram positive bacteria and fungi. Ethyl acetate extract was the best for inhibition of the microorganism's growth. All extracts (total ethanol, and successive extracts) showed DPPH radical scavenging activity in a concentration-dependent manner. The best antioxidant activity was obtained by ethyl acetate & n-butanol extract (94.28%, IC50 = 56.6 µg/ml). Also All extracts (total ethanol, and successive extracts) showed anticoagulant activity at higher concentration with prolonged clotting time 6:30 and 4:30 s at 10 mg/ml concentrations, respectively.

Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae) leaf extract: chemical composition, antioxidant and hypoglicaemic activities.

Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae) leaf extract was investigated for its chemical profile and antioxidant and hypoglycaemic properties. The antioxidant effects were investigated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ß-carotene bleaching, and metal chelating activity assays. The carbohydrate-hydrolysing enzymes inhibition assay was used to test the hypoglycaemic potential. R. chalepensis showed a high content of hesperidin and rutin with values of 591.9 and 266.7 mg/g dry extract, respectively. The extract exhibited a promising protection of lipid peroxidation (IC50 value of 16.9 µg/mL) and inhibited both α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes in a concentration-dependent manner. The highest activity was found against α-amylase (IC50 value of 69.0 µg/mL). The obtained results support the use of R. chalepensis leaves as healthy food ingredients.

Effect of Ruta chalepensis on Zinc, Lipid Profile and Antioxidant Levels in the Blood and Tissue of Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes in Rats Fed Zinc-Deficient Diets.

OBJECTIVES: In diabetes, oxidative stress and lipid abnormalities are common and pronounced and represent important factors that are involved in the development of complications of diabetes. Zinc deficiency generally induces oxidative stress, but it is well known that the antioxidant Ruta chalepensis has an effective modulator role in oxidative stress in metabolic diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of R. chalepensis extract on blood biochemical parameters, tissue zinc status and antioxidant systems in rats with diabetes that were fed zinc-deficient diets. METHODS: We divided 28 male albino Wistar rats into 4 groups: 2 groups (1 group with diabetes, 1 group without diabetes) were fed zinc-sufficient diets, while the other 2 groups of rats with diabetes were fed zinc-deficient diets. One group was not treated, and the other was treated with the extract of R. chalepensis. After 3 weeks of dietary manipulation, the fasting animals were killed. RESULTS: The body-weight gains of the zinc-deficient animals with diabetes were lower than those of the zinc-adequate animals with diabetes. It was noticed also that inadequate dietary zinc intake increased the glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, urea, uric acid, creatinine and lipid peroxidation levels. In addition, the zinc-deficient diet led to a decrease in zinc tissues (femur, liver, kidney), glutathione concentration and both glutathione peroxidase and glutathione-S-transferase activities. However, R. chalepensis treatment ameliorated all the previous parameters approximately to their normal levels. CONCLUSIONS: It seems that R. chalepensis supplementation is a potent factor in reducing the oxidative severity of zinc deficiency in experimental diabetes through its hypoglycemic and antioxidant actions.

Antioxidant and antimicrobial phenolic compounds from extracts of cultivated and wild-grown Tunisian Ruta chalepensis.

The antioxidant and antibacterial activities of phenolic compounds from cultivated and wild Tunisian Ruta chalepensis L. leaves, stems, and flowers were assessed. The leaves and the flowers exhibited high but similar total polyphenol, flavonoid, and tannin content. Moreover, two organs showed strong, although not significantly different, total antioxidant activity, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging ability, and reducing power. Investigation of the phenolic composition showed that vanillic acid and coumarin were the major compounds in the two organs, with higher percentages in the cultivated organs than in the spontaneous organs. Furthermore, R. chalepensis extracts showed marked antibacterial properties against human pathogen strains, and the activity was organ- and origin-dependent. Spontaneous stems had the strongest activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. From these results, it was concluded that domestication of Ruta did not significantly affect its chemical composition and consequently the possibility of using R. chalpensis organs as a potential source of natural antioxidants and as an antimicrobial agent in the food industry.

Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Ruta chalepensis L. growing wild in Lebanon.

The essential oils (EOs) isolated from the fresh aerial parts of Ruta chalepensis L. collected in North Lebanon were obtained by solvent-free microwave extraction (Milestone®), yielding 0.12% EO from both the leaves and a mixture of stems and leaves. The EOs were characterized by GC/MS analysis, and 27 components were identified, which were primarily ketones (88.0-93.2%). The main components were nonan-2-one and undecan-2-one. The antimicrobial activity of the EOs against a Gram-positive and a Gram-negative bacterium, a yeast, and a dermatophyte was evaluated using the broth-microdilution technique and expressed as minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). The EOs revealed moderate in vitro antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum and Candida albicans.

Essential oil composition, phytotoxic and antifungal activities of Ruta chalepensis L. leaves from High Atlas Mountains (Morocco).

This study aimed at the determination of chemical composition of essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation, and to evaluate their phytotoxic and antifungal activities. Leaves of Ruta chalepensis L. were collected from the region of Tensift Al Haouz (High Atlas Mountains) Marrakech, Morocco. The essential oil (oil yield is 0.56%) was analysed by GC-FID and GC/MS. Twenty-two compounds were identified and accounted for 92.4% of the total oil composition. The major components were undecan-2-one (49.08%), nonan-2-one (33.15%), limonene (4.19%) and decanone (2.71%). Antifungal ability of essential oils was tested by disc agar diffusion against five plant pathogenic fungi: Fusarium proliferatum, Fusarium pseudograminearum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium polyphialidicum. The oils were also tested in vitro for herbicidal activity by determining their influence on the germination and the shoot and root growth of two weed species, Triticum durum and Phalaris canariensis L.