Ethnopharmacology, Nutritional Value, Therapeutic Effects, Phytochemistry, and Toxicology of Salvia hispanica L.: A Review.

AIMS: The purpose of this review was to emphasize the nutritional value, and pharmacological and phytochemical properties of Salvia hispanica, as well as its toxicological evaluation. BACKGROUND: Salvia hispanica L. (S. hispanica), also called chia seeds, is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the family Lamiaceae. It is a species of medicinal and dietary plant used since ancient times by the Maya and Aztecs. Its product is an indehiscent dry fruit that is commonly called a seed. It is utilized for its health benefits and uses in cooking. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to investigate the pharmacological, phytochemical, and toxicological properties of S. hispanica seeds. The research also attempted to explore and compile all existing knowledge and data on these seeds' nutritional value and medical applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The current review was conducted using numerous scientific databases, including Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, etc. The correct plant name was verified from plantlist.org. The results of this search were interpreted, analyzed, and documented based on the obtained bibliographic information. RESULTS: S. hispanica is a pseudo cereal that is consumed by the world's population because of its preventive, functional, and antioxidant characteristics, attributable to the presence of lipids, dietary fiber, protein, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and minerals. According to research, chia offers hypoglycemic, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antihypersensitive, anti-obesity, and cardioprotective properties. Chia consumption has grown because of its favorable benefits on obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and several forms of cancer. These advantages are mostly due to the high concentration of essential fatty acids, dietary fiber, antioxidants, flavonoids, anthocyanins, vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals found in this seed. Based on the beneficial components, chia seeds have enormous potential in the areas of health, food, animal feed, medicines, and nutraceuticals. Finally, toxicological investigations have indicated the greater doses of chia seed extracts as safe. CONCLUSION: The current evaluation has focused on the distribution, chemical composition, nutritional value, and principal uses of S. hispanica in order to determine future research requirements and examine its pharmacological applications through clinical studies.

Development of Fortified Breads Enriched with Plant-Based Bioactive Peptides Derived from the Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Expeller.

By-products from the industrialization of oilseeds, particularly chia, can be sustainably used for the development of new functional products. In this work, wheat breads supplemented with up to 10 mg of chia expeller hydrolysate/g of flour were prepared, obtaining fortified breads with acceptability for consumption, according to a preliminary consumer research study based on an affective test employing a five-point hedonic scale of global acceptance. In this context, protein hydrolysates of the chia expeller were produced using Alcalase, reaching a degree of hydrolysis of 54.3 ± 1.6% with an antioxidant activity of 55.8 ± 0.4% after 6 h incubation at 25 °C in the presence of the enzyme. These peptides showed appropriate techno-functional properties and chemical compositions suitable for the further development of bakery products. Taken together, our approach and the development of a fortified bread with plant-based bioactive peptides provide a novel and eco-friendly alternative for the recovery of nutrients from agro-industrial waste. More importantly, these enriched breads could exert beneficial effects on human health by exploiting the antioxidant properties of functional peptides derived from the chia expeller.

Chia Phenolic Extract Appear to Improve Small Intestinal Functionality, Morphology, Bacterial Populations, and Inflammation Biomarkers In Vivo (Gallus gallus).

Phenolic compounds can act as a substrate for colonic resident microbiota. Once the metabolites are absorbed and distributed throughout the body, they can have diverse effects on the gut. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the intra-amniotic administration of a chia phenolic extract on intestinal inflammation, intestinal barrier, brush border membrane functionality, intestinal microbiota, and morphology in vivo (Gallus gallus model). Cornish-cross fertile broiler eggs, at 17 days of embryonic incubation, were separated into groups as follows: non-injected (NI; this group did not receive an injection); 18 MΩ H2O (H2O; injected with ultrapure water), and 10 mg/mL (1%) chia phenolic extract (CPE; injected with phenolic extract diluted in ultrapure water). Immediately after hatch (21 days), chickens were euthanized and their small intestine, cecum, and cecum content were collected and analyzed. The chia phenolic extract reduced the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and increased the sucrose isomaltase (SI) gene expression, reduced the Bifidobacterium and E. coli populations, reduced the Paneth cell diameter, increased depth crypt, and maintained villus height compared to the non-injected control group. Chia phenolic extract may be a promising beneficial compound for improving intestinal health, demonstrating positive changes in intestinal inflammation, functionality, microbiota, and morphology.

Physico-Chemical and Nutritional Properties of Chia Seeds from Latin American Countries.

In the last few decades, chia (Salvia hispanica L.) cultivation has expanded around the world, and the seeds have become well known due to their rich composition of nutrients and bioactive compounds. The aim of this work was to evaluate the physical, chemical, and nutritional profile of eight types of chia seeds grown in different Latin-American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru). The results showed that several nutritional parameters of the seeds, such as the protein content and amino acid profile, dietary fiber content, lipid content, mineral composition, and presence of phytate, depend on the location in which they were grown. Other parameters, such as ash content, fatty acid profile, or various physical parameters, were uniform across locations (except for color parameters). The results support the notion that the nutritional characteristics of seeds are determined by the seeds' origin, and further analysis is needed to determine the exact mechanisms that control the changes in the seed nutritional properties of chia seeds.

Evaluation of the Effects of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Leaves Ethanolic Extracts Supplementation on Biochemical and Hepatic Markers on Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

Obesity is a significant health concern affecting 13% of the world's population. It is often associated with insulin resistance and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), which can cause chronic inflammation in the liver and adipose tissue. Obese hepatocytes show increased lipid droplets and lipid peroxidation, which can lead to the progression of liver damage. Polyphenols have been shown to have the ability to reduce lipid peroxidation, thereby promoting hepatocyte health. Chia leaves, a by-product of chia seed production, are a natural source of bioactive antioxidant compounds, such as cinnamic acids and flavonoids, which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, chia leaves' ethanolic extracts of two seed phenotypes were tested on diet-induced obese mice to evaluate their therapeutic potential. Results show that the chia leaf extract positively affected insulin resistance and lipid peroxidation in the liver. In addition, the extract improved the HOMA-IR index compared to the obese control group, reducing the number and size of lipid droplets and lipid peroxidation. These results suggest that chia leaf extract may help treat insulin resistance and liver damage associated with MAFLD.

Risk/Benefit Evaluation of Chia Seeds as a New Ingredient in Cereal-Based Foods.

Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) is a food rich in protein, fiber, polyunsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants. Consequently, its incorporation in food formulations may be desirable from a nutritional and healthy point of view. However, there is concern regarding the formation of process contaminants when they are subjected to thermal processing. The objective of this study was to incorporate different amounts of ground chia seeds in a biscuit model to evaluate the effect on the antioxidant capacity and formation of acrylamide and furfurals. Seven standard "Maria-type" biscuit formulations were prepared, replacing wheat flour with different amounts of ground chia seeds (defatted and non-defatted), from 0% (control biscuit) to 15% (respect to total solids in the recipe). Samples were baked at 180 °C for 22 min. Compared with the control biscuit, chia formulations increased the content of nutrients, antioxidant capacity (ABTS) and phenolic compounds (Folin-Ciocalteau method) but also doubled acrylamide levels and even raised more than 10 times furanic compound concentrations. Results indicate that the use of chia seeds as ingredients in new cereal-based formulations would improve the nutritional profile but also increase the occurrence of chemical process contaminants. This paradox should be carefully considered in the context of risk/benefit analysis.

Chia Flour (Salvia hispanica L.) Intake Does Not Affect Weight Loss and Lipid Profile but Improve Systolic Blood Pressure Control in Obesity.

BACKGROUND: Obesity is an epidemic, multifactorial and difficult-to-control disease, besides being a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Among the multiple intervention proposals, the addition of chia in meals has been considered due to its composition and possible effects on weight loss and cardiovascular parameters. OBJECTIVE: We evaluate the influence of chia flour (Salvia hispanica L.) intake on body weight, body composition, energy expenditure (EE) and cardiovascular risk in obese women. METHODS: This study is a clinical trial performed with 20 adult women with obesity randomized into experimental (chia flour) and control (placebo) groups. We assessed anthropometric and biochemical measurements, as well as clinical, dietary and EE variables before intervention and 90 days later. RESULTS: There were no differences in anthropometric indicators, body composition or EE between groups, but a decrease in HDL-c (p = 0.049) and a trend towards the reduction of systolic blood pressure (SBP) (p = 0.062) was observed in the experimental group. CONCLUSION: Chia flour had a possible positive effect on SBP control, but negatively affected the lipid profile and did not seem to influence obesity control.

Formation of acrylamide during the roasting of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.).

Chia is a novel food rich in health-promoting constituents. There is concern regarding the formation of process contaminants when subjected to thermal processing. Acrylamide formation in chia seeds under different roasting conditions (160-200 °C/5-30 min) and formats (whole seeds and ground seeds) was investigated. Acrylamide increased with the intensity of the thermal treatment until a maximum at 180 °C/15 min where levels of precursors were significantly reduced. The fate of acrylamide formation also depended on the physical integrity of the chia seed. Acrylamide formed rapidly on the coat of the seed but represents only 20-25 % of the total. Acrylamide was generated progressively in the inner part of the cell and efficiently retained by the pericarp. The particle size and integrity of chia seeds should be considered in food applications subjected to thermal treatment and grinding or the addition of ground seeds should be revised to reduce the exposure of acrylamide to consumers.

Mixing chia seeds and sprouts at different developmental stages: A cost-effective way to improve antioxidant vitamin composition.

Various approaches can be used to improve chemical food composition avoiding the low acceptance risks that imply the use of transgenic crops. Here, we evaluated the antioxidant vitamin composition of dry and germinating seeds and sprouts of chia and examined the potential of exploiting natural variation of developmental stages to improve vitamin contents in chia-derived foodstuffs. Results showed that dry seeds contained the highest contents of vitamin E, with values 8-fold higher compared to sprouts. Vitamin C contents strongly increased just after seed imbibition, so that germinating seeds contained 5- and 17.5-fold higher values than dry seeds and sprouts, respectively. Sprouts displayed the highest contents of carotenoids (including ß-carotene [pro-vitamin A]). We conclude that mixing dry seeds, germinating seeds and sprouts (in a proportion of 1.5:2:1 w/w/w) may be a cost-effective way to obtain an optimal composition of antioxidant vitamins in foodstuffs such as salads.

Composición química, características nutricionales y beneficios asociados al consumo de chía (Salvia hispanica L.)

RESUMEN La chía (Salvia hispanica L.) es una semilla originaria de la zona sur de México y Guatemala, que se ha expandido a otros países de latinoamérica. Esta semilla ha sido utilizada con diferentes fines a lo largo de la historia, donde se destaca como producto alimentario debido a su gran versatilidad, ya que puede ser utilizada como semilla, harina integral, fracciones de fibra y/o proteína y aceite. En la actualidad, la investigación de nuevas fuentes alimentarias que otorguen beneficios a la salud ha logrado recopilar información sobre la composición química y valor nutricional de esta semilla y sus derivados (harina y aceite), donde se encuentra principalmente el contenido de ácidos grasos poli-insaturados n-3, destacando el ácido alfa linolénico (C18:3n-3, ALA), que se propone como fuente alternativa de este nutriente a alimentos de otros orígenes, además el contenido de fibra de la chía, principalmente fibra insoluble. En cuanto a los beneficios que se asocian al consumo de chía, se ha visto que tiene estrecha relación con enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles como dislipidemia, diabetes, hipertensión, cáncer, entre otras, logrando captar la atención de investigadores para controlar y prevenir estas patologías que van en aumento en la población mundial. Por lo tanto, se hace relevante profundizar en los conocimientos disponibles sobre esta semilla y sus subproductos para poder establecer los posibles mecanismos moleculares que están involucrados en la generación de beneficios para la salud. El objetivo de esta revisión es presentar una actualización de los beneficios asociados al consumo de semilla de chía y sus derivados.

ABSTRACT Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a seed native to the southern part of Mexico and Guatemala, which has spread to other Latin American countries. This seed has been used for different purposes throughout history, where it stands out as a food product due to its great versatility, since it can be used as a seed, whole meal flour, fiber and/or protein fractions and oil. Currently, the investigation of new food sources that provide health benefits has managed to collect information on the chemical composition and nutritional value of this seed and its derivatives (flour and oil). For polyunsaturated fatty acid content, n-3 is found, highlighting alpha linolenic acid (C18:3n-3, ALA), which is proposed as an alternative source of this nutrient to foods of other origins. In addition, the fiber content of chia, is mainly insoluble fiber. Regarding the benefits associated with chia consumption, it is closely related to chronic non-communicable diseases such as dyslipidemia, diabetes, type II, hypertension, cancer, among others, managing to attract the attention of researchers to control and prevent these pathologies that are increasing in world population. Therefore, it is relevant to deepen the knowledge available about this seed and its by-products in order to establish the possible molecular mechanisms that are involved in generating health benefits. The objective of this review is to present an update on the benefits associated with consumption of chia seed and its derivatives.

Clinical, Nutritional, and Functional Evaluation of Chia Seed-Fortified Muffins.

Health-protective functional foods are gaining popularity in the world of nutrition because they promote excellent health while decreasing pharmaceutical burdens. Chia seeds (CS) (Salvia hispanica L.), the greatest vegetative source of α-linolenic acid, bioactive proteins, and fibers, are among the top unconventional oilseeds shown to have bounteous benefits against various non-communicable diseases. Purposely, this study was designed to integrate roasted CS powder into white-flour-based ordinary bakery goods to improve their nutritional and nutraceutical profiles. CS efficacy in normal and hyperlipidemic Sprague-Dawley rats resulted in mitigating blood glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol while elevating high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, hematocrit, hemoglobin, red blood cell counts, and platelets. The nutritional profiling of chia-fortified muffins indicated significant increases of 47% in fat, 92% in fiber, 15% in protein, and 62% in minerals. The farinographic experiments of CS-blends revealed generally improved dough quality features with a significant rise in the degree of softening as fortification levels increased. A marketable recipe for CSF-muffins with several degrees of fortification demonstrated a significant rise in fat, 92% rise in fiber, 15% rise in protein, and 62% rise in minerals. Sensorial evaluation by trained taste panelists revealed a maximum appraisal of the 15% chia-fortified muffins due to aroma, appearance, and overall acceptability, and were forwarded for being acceptable for commercialization.

Quantifying Cardinal Temperatures of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Using Non-Linear Regression Models.

Temperature is the main factor that impacts germination and therefore the success of annual crops, such as chia (Salvia hispanica L.), whose seeds are known for their high nutritional value related to its oil. The effect of temperature on germination is related to cardinal-temperature concepts that describe the range of temperature over which seeds of a particular species can germinate. Therefore, in this study, in addition to calculated germinative parameters such as total germination and germination rate of S. hispanica seeds, the effectiveness of non-linear models for estimating the cardinal temperatures of chia seeds was also determined. We observed that germination of S. hispanica occurred in cold to moderate-high temperatures (10-35 °C), having an optimal range between 25 and 35 °C, with the highest GR and t50 at 30 °C. Temperatures higher than 35 °C significantly reduced germination. Output parameters of the different non-linear models showed that the response of chia germination to temperature was best explained by beta models (B). Cardinal temperatures calculated by the B1 model for chia germination were: 2.52 ± 6.82 °C for the base, 30.45 ± 0.32 °C for the optimum, and 48.58 ± 2.93 °C for the ceiling temperature.

Effect of Chitosan Nanoparticles Incorporating Antioxidants from Salvia hispanica L. on the Amaranth Flour Films.

Research background: Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) flour produces films with excellent barrier properties against water vapor, allowing food preservation, but the mechanical properties are poor compared to synthetic films. One strategy to improve these properties is the incorporation of nanoparticles. The particles can also serve as a vehicle for the addition of antioxidant agents into the films. The objective of this work is to optimize the formulation for the preparation of amaranth flour films treated with antioxidant chia (Salvia hispanica L.) extract-loaded chitosan particles using response surface methodology (RSM). Experimental approach: Chitosan nanoparticles with the extract were synthesized by ionic gelation, and the films were made by the casting method. Three independent variables were assigned: amaranth flour (4-6%), glycerol (25-35%) and chitosan nanoparticles loaded with the chia extract (0-0.75%). We then evaluated the physical (thickness), mechanical (tensile strength, Young´s modulus and elongation), barrier (water vapor permeability, moisture and water solubility) and antioxidant properties of the films. The experimental results of the properties were analyzed using a Box-Behnken experimental design generating 15 runs with three replicates at the central point. Results and conclusions: Second and third order polynomial models were obtained from the ANOVA analysis of the evaluated responses, and high coefficients of determination were found (0.91-1.0). The water vapor permeability of the films was 0.82-2.39·10-7 (g·mm)/(Pa·s·m2), tensile strength was 0.33-1.63 MPa and antioxidant activity 2.24-5.65%. The variables had different effects on the films: glycerol negatively affected their properties, and the permeability values increased with increased amaranth flour content. The nanoparticles improved the mechanical, barrier and antioxidant properties of the films compared to the films without nanosystems. The optimal formulation was 4% amaranth flour, 25% glycerol and 0.36% chitosan nanoparticles. The optimized films had better mechanical (1.62 MPa) properties, a low water vapor permeability value (0.91·10-7 (g·mm)/(Pa·s·m2)) and moderate antioxidant activity (6.43%). Novelty and scientific contribution: The results show the effect of chitosan nanoparticles on the properties of amaranth flour films for the first time. The resulting equations are useful in the design of food packaging.

Salvia hispanica L. seeds extract alleviate encephalopathy in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats: role of oxidative stress, neurotransmitters, DNA and histological indices.

CONTEXT: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder and may lead to cognitive dysfunctions. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this work is to evaluate the potency of Salvia hispanica L. seeds (S. hispanica L.) (chia seeds) petroleum ether extract in attenuating brain complications associated with streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetes in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Phytochemical composition of the seeds extract, macro and micro elements, vitamins, protein, carbohydrate and caloric values were estimated. Diabetes was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of STZ (60 mg/kg body weight (b.wt)). Glibenclamide as a reference drug was also evaluated. The biochemical evaluation was done by measuring levels of glucose, insulin, α- amylase, glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HD), noradrenaline (NE), acetylcholinesterase (AchE), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), DNA fragmentation pattern and the histopathological profile of the brain hippocampus region. RESULTS: Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis revealed the presence of twenty-five fatty acid esters and twenty-two compounds. Column chromatography led to the isolation of nine compounds. Treatment with the seeds extract revealed improvement of the measured parameters with variable degrees. CONCLUSION: Chia seeds extract succeeded to attenuate the neurodegeneration in diabetic rats. Thereafter, it had a therapeutic effect and could be potentially used as a new dietary supplement against diabetic encephalopathy.

Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Properties of Chia Protein Hydrolysates in Primary Human Monocyte-Macrophage Plasticity.

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed has high potential in the development of functional food due to its protein content with a special amino acid profile. Among the hematopoietic-derived cells, monocytes are endowed with high plasticity, responsible for their pro- and anti-inflammatory function in M1 and M2 phenotype polarization, respectively. Indeed, monocytes are involved in several oxidative- and inflammatory-associated disorders such as cancer, obesity, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. This study was designed to investigate the role of chia protein hydrolysates (CPHs) in primary human monocyte-macrophage plasticity response using biochemical, RT-qPCR, and ELISA assays. Our results showed that CPHs reduce ROS and nitrite output, as pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, and enhance the expression and release of anti-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, CPHs reverse LPS-associated M1 polarization into M2. These findings open new opportunities for developing nutritional strategies with chia as a dietary source of biopeptides to prevent the development and progression of oxidative- and inflammatory-related diseases.

Chia expeller: A promising source of antioxidant, antihypertensive and antithrombotic peptides produced by enzymatic hydrolysis with Alcalase and Flavourzyme.

Chia expeller is a promising source of bioactive compounds suitable for the development of nutraceutical ingredients due to its functional, biological, and nutritional properties. In this work, chia expeller was hydrolysed with Alcalase-Flavourzyme sequential system and compared to the individual enzymes. A higher degree of hydrolysis (57.63 ± 6.08%) was obtained after 90 min-Alcalase and 90 min-Flavourzyme (H-A90-F90), with the development of low molecular weight peptides as observed by SDS-PAGE. H-A90-F90 exhibited antiradical activity with ABTS (TE = 4.87 ± 0.13 mmol L-1 mg-1), DPPH (TE = 1.55 ± 0.02 mmol L-1 mg-1), antihypertensive activity (45% ACE-I inhibition), and antithrombotic activity against both intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways. These results represent the first report of antithrombotic peptides from Salvia hispanica, highlighting the relevant use of chia seed by-products to obtain potentially antioxidant, antihypertensive, and anticoagulant peptides by enzymatic hydrolysis with Alcalase and Flavourzyme, enhancing this agro-industrial by-product.

Characterization of free and insoluble-bound phenolics of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds.

The content, antioxidant activity and composition of free and bound phenolics from chia seeds were investigated. The free phenolics were extracted by using ethanol and methanol of analytical purity, 70% v/v ethanol and by 70% v/v methanol. The bound phenolics were extracted from seeds after alkaline hydrolysis was done. The phenolics content obtained by aqueous-alcoholic solutions was higher than the content obtained by using the pure alcoholic solution (for 20.8% by 70% methanol and 41.2% by 70% ethanol). The content of bound phenolics was 932 µg g-1. Among the identified phenolic compounds the apigenin 4'-O-glucoside was the most abundant, and among the acids, a rosmarinic was the most abundant in free phenolic extract and caffeic acid in bound. The correlation coefficients indicated the DPPH method and reducing power were more suitable for assessing the antioxidant activity than the FRAP method.

ß-Carotene biofortification of chia sprouts with plant growth regulators.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) is a native plant species from South America that is very appreciated for its oleaginous seeds in the agri-food field. Chia seeds are natural sources of many bioactive compounds which provide benefits to human health. Nevertheless, chia sprouts have better nutritional properties than seeds, such as antioxidants, essential amino acids, and phenolic compounds. Among all these beneficial compounds, ß-carotene has not been studied in chia sprouts. ß-carotene is a precursor of vitamin A, which contributes to maintaining our health status. In this study, to improve ß-carotene content in chia sprouts, some plant growth regulators (abscisic acid, methyl jasmonate and methyl salicylate) were applied exogenously to germinating chia seeds. Gibberellins A4/A7 and cytokinin 6-benzyladenine (Promalin®) were also applied, combined with the other regulators, to antagonize a possible inhibition in the germination. Seeds were grown in darkness for 4 days, then seeds were exposed to a short light stimulus (30') and finally to a continued light stimulus (48h). ß-carotene, xanthophylls, chlorophylls, de-epoxidation status of xanthophyll cycle (DPS), germination rate, and sprouts fresh weight were analysed. The results show that sprouts treated with methyl salicylate in-creased 2,35 fold their ß-carotene content when they were exposed to light for 30'+48h. Sprouts fresh weight and germination were not affected by methyl salicylate. Although more research is needed before industrial application, it is concluded that methyl salicylate can be used to improve ß-carotene contents in chia sprouts.

Application of chemometric tools in the development and sensory evaluation of gluten-free cracknel biscuits with the addition of chia seeds and turmeric powder.

Gluten-free biscuits were developed with the addition of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) and turmeric powder. An experimental design 22 were employed in the formulation optimization that promotes better sensory acceptance through acceptance test with a hedonic scale of 9 points. For characterization purposes, the centesimal composition from chia seeds and the turmeric powder were determined. The biscuits were produced from an optimized formulation with and without chia seeds and turmeric powder with microbiological results safe for consumption by evaluation Salmonella sp., positive coagulase Staphylococcus, and Coliforms to 45 °C. The Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was used in the investigation of sensory results (color, flavor, texture, smell, appearance, overall impression). It was also considered the habits of consuming food with/without gluten, purchase intentions, including age and gender. The results show that there is no distinction between the biscuits with the addition of chia seeds and turmeric powder. A statistical test using the confidence ellipse confirms that there no significant difference, at a 95% confidence level, among the sensory results for the biscuits with and without chia seeds and turmeric powder.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) Gene Expression Atlas Elucidates Dynamic Spatio-Temporal Changes Associated With Plant Growth and Development.

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.), now a popular superfood and a pseudocereal, is one of the richest sources of dietary nutrients such as protein, fiber, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). At present, the genomic and genetic information available in the public domain for this crop are scanty, which hinders an understanding of its growth and development and genetic improvement. We report an RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq)-based comprehensive transcriptome atlas of Chia sampled from 13 tissue types covering vegetative and reproductive growth stages. We used ~355 million high-quality reads of total ~394 million raw reads from transcriptome sequencing to generate de novo reference transcriptome assembly and the tissue-specific transcript assemblies. After the quality assessment of the merged assemblies and implementing redundancy reduction methods, 82,663 reference transcripts were identified. About 65,587 of 82,663 transcripts were translated into 99,307 peptides, and we were successful in assigning InterPro annotations to 45,209 peptides and gene ontology (GO) terms to 32,638 peptides. The assembled transcriptome is estimated to have the complete sequence information for ~86% of the genes found in the Chia genome. Furthermore, the analysis of 53,200 differentially expressed transcripts (DETs) revealed their distinct expression patterns in Chia's vegetative and reproductive tissues; tissue-specific networks and developmental stage-specific networks of transcription factors (TFs); and the regulation of the expression of enzyme-coding genes associated with important metabolic pathways. In addition, we identified 2,411 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) as potential genetic markers from the transcripts. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive transcriptome atlas, and SSRs, contributing to building essential genomic resources to support basic research, genome annotation, functional genomics, and molecular breeding of Chia.