Beyond School Climate: Conceptualizing the School as a Protective Factor Approach.

BACKGROUND: The school climate concept has been promising, but has long-standing critiques that have not been adequately addressed to date. The School as a Protective Factor approach represents one attempt to offer a new approach that builds on and extends beyond the concept of school climate while addressing previously identified limitations. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THEORY: The School as a Protective Factor approach offers a new framework for conceptualizing, measuring, and establishing protective school social and learning environments that co-promote academic achievement and student health in schools, especially student mental health and substance use/abuse prevention. This new framework includes clear definitions, explicit goals, firmly established constructs, validated measures, and an intentionally parsimonious approach that prioritizes the implementation of well-established, high-impact constructs. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY, PRACTICE, AND EQUITY: The School as a Protective Factor approach presents a simple, easy-to-use means of ensuring a school social environment that meets the developmental, academic, and health needs of all children and adolescents while maximizing protection across a range of desired outcomes. Perhaps most importantly, it does so in a manner that is manageable and easily integrated into every aspect of schooling, resonates with the practical experience of school personnel, and includes brief, effective, and free measurement tools.

Feasibility, acceptability, and appropriability of a national whole-school program for reducing school violence and improving school coexistence.

Introduction: The increase in school violence following the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the need for schools to adopt a multilevel whole-school approach. This study examines a national program designed by the Chilean Ministry of Education, in collaboration with universities, as part of the Ministry's Educational Reactivation Plan, aimed at improving school climate management across Chile. Methods: The "Learning to Live Together Program" (LLT) was implemented across all 16 regions of Chile, focusing on establishing school climate networks, providing direct intensive university technical assistance, and enhancing professional development and training. The feasibility, acceptability, and appropriability of the LLT program were assessed through a survey distributed to 1,561 staff members from 783 schools. Participants responded to a comprehensive set of instruments measuring acceptability, appropriability, feasibility, attitudes toward implementation, fidelity, and initial perceived results. Results: The results indicate high initial adoption rates and significant improvements in the assessed dimensions. The enhancement of school climate practices and strengthening school collaboration networks were of considerable relevance. Discussion: These findings support the efficacy of the multilevel whole-school approach as a viable strategy for Latin American countries, providing critical data for educational and governmental decision-making. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that these outcomes may be applicable to the implementation of similar policies in different contexts and countries.

A Paradox of School Social Organization: Positive School Climate, Friendship Network Density, and Adolescent Violence.

Schools are often encouraged to foster a positive climate to reduce adolescent violence, but evidence on the effectiveness of this approach varies significantly. This study investigates the roots of this variation by testing alternative hypotheses about how positive school-level climate and school-level student friendship network density interact to shape adolescent violence perpetration. Research on informal social control and network closure suggests that the violence-reducing association of positive school climate will be enhanced among schools where students are more densely tied through their friendships. Research on youth conflict and subversion of control suggests the opposite. These hypotheses are tested with data from Waves I-II of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (n = 11,771; 49% Female; Age mean = 15.04, SD = 1.60). Consistent with the conflict/subversion hypothesis, analyses indicate that the inverse association between positive school climate and adolescent violence is only evident among schools with a very low density of friendship ties. Strikingly, however, there is evidence that a more positive school climate is associated with increases in violence among youth attending schools with a high density of friendship ties. These findings suggest that efforts to reduce violence by fostering cohesion among youth in their schools and other social contexts can be undermined by youth network processes.

Social connectedness and loneliness in school for autistic and allistic children.

LAY ABSTRACT: Many previous studies reported that autistic children have fewer social connections. Yet, recent studies also show that autistic children more often feel lonely in school than allistic (i.e. non-autistic) children. This outcome seems to go against the traditional view that autistic children do not desire to have social connections. Therefore, this study aimed to find out how autistic and allistic children feel about their social connections. We included 47 autistic and 52 neurodiverse-allistic children from two special education primary schools (aged 8-13 years). We tested their social connections and loneliness in school, through a new approach. This new approach includes questionnaires, and sensors for tracking social contacts on playgrounds during school breaks. We found that allistic children felt more loneliness when they spent little time in social contacts during school breaks. Yet, autistic children felt more loneliness when their peers did not like to play with them. For these autistic children, feelings of loneliness may go beyond face-to-face contacts. Being liked as part of a peer group was key. Understanding differences in children's needs can lead to a more effective design for a welcoming school climate.

Sibling and School Bullying Victimization and Its Relation With Children's Subjective Well-Being in Indonesia: The Protective Role of Family and School Climate.

Studies on the influence of family and school climates on the relationships between sibling and school bullying victimization and children's subjective well-being (SWB) in Indonesia are still scarce. The aims of this study are to investigate family and school climates as protective factors for children from the negative consequences of bullying by siblings or other children in school on SWB. The study used the third-wave data of the Children's Worlds survey that was collected in Indonesia in October 2017. Participants of the study were children aged 10 and 12 years old (N = 15,604; 49.8% girls, 50.2% boys, Mean age = 10.55; SD = 1.17). There are four questionnaires used in the study: five items measure bullying at home and at school, the Children's Worlds Subjective Well-Being Scale, six items measure family climate, and four items measure school climate. Data were analyzed using R and the lavaan library for multilevel structural equation modeling, using full information maximum likelihood (FIML) for missing data and robust maximum likelihood (ML) estimation. Results showed that children who experienced bullying incidents, both at home by siblings and at school, predicted lower levels of SWB. School climate and family climate predicted higher levels of SWB. Results also showed that school bullying interacted significantly with school climate, while sibling bullying interacted significantly with family climate. Schools with students that reported more positive levels of family climate also reported higher levels of SWB. Students from public schools reported higher levels of SWB, which is unexpected.

School belonging mediates the association between negative school climate and depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents: a national population-based longitudinal study.

Background: A negative school climate is an important factor affecting students' mental health. However, few studies have focused on the mechanisms underlying the relationship. This study aimed to explore the mediating effect of school belonging on the association between negative school climate and depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents, using a nationwide longitudinal survey. Methods: We conducted a longitudinal study using data from the 2013 (T1) and 2014 (T2) waves of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS). A negative school climate was assessed by school administrators' reports. School belonging and depressive symptoms were evaluated using adolescents' self-reports. We used a cross-lagged panel model to explore the mediating effect of school belonging on the association between negative school climate and depressive symptoms, adjusting for a set of covariates. Results: In total, 7,049 Chinese adolescents with a mean age of 12.9 years were included in this study. The results of the cross-lagged model showed that negative school climate at T1 was significantly negatively associated with school belonging at T2 (ß = -0.089, 95%CI = -0.111--0.067, p < 0.001), and was positively associated with depressive symptoms at T2 (ß = 0.032, 95%CI = 0.012-0.054, p = 0.002). In addition, school belonging at T1 was significantly negatively associated with depressive symptoms at T2 (ß = -0.025, 95%CI = -0.050--0.001, p = 0.045). Mediation analysis showed that school belonging played a mediating role in the association between negative school climate and depressive symptoms (ß = 0.002, 95%CI = 0.001-0.005, p = 0.041). Conclusion: Among Chinese adolescents, a negative school climate is associated with a greater risk of depressive symptoms. Improving school belonging may be helpful in decreasing the impact of a negative school climate on depressive symptoms in adolescents.

The role of school climate on student disclosure of private information and cyberbullying: a comparison of regular and vocational school students in China.

Introduction: Adolescents are experiencing an unprecedented cyber-saturated environment where the disclosure of private information should be approached with caution. This study aims to investigate the effects of school environment, including student support, teacher support, and opportunities for autonomy, on students' disclosure of private information and their experiences with cyberbullying. Methods: In September 2022, a total of 1,716 students (mean age = 14.60, SD = 1.35) from three regular and vocational schools in China participated in the survey. Results: The results showed that 35.6% of the participants had experienced victimization by cyberbullying, and 12.6% had perpetrated cyberbullying. Vocational school students reported significantly higher rates of cyberbullying and lower levels of perceived school climate than students from regular school. Student support in the school environment was found to negatively affect both cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, with this impact appearing to be stronger in regular schools as compared to vocational schools. Opportunities for autonomy and the disclosure of private information were positively correlated with experiences of cyberbullying. Discussion: This study introduces a novel perspective that perceived school climate influences adolescents' disclosure of private information and their involvement in cyberbullying. The findings could provide implications for future research and practices aimed at child protection in cyberspace.

Exploring the mediating role of promoting school physical activity on the relationship between low socioeconomic status and academic achievement and school climate: evidence from 4,990 Chilean schools.

There is evidence that promoting school physical activity (PSPA) benefits children and adolescents, but little is understood about how this promotion may relate to academic achievement and school climate across varying levels of socioeconomic status (SES). Hence, the study aimed to address this knowledge gap by examining two main objectives: (1) determining the association between PSPA and academic achievement and school climate according to schools' SES and (2) exploring the potential mediating role of PSPA in the relationship between schools' SES and academic achievement and school climate. This cross-sectional study at the school level focused on 4,990 schools (including public, subsidized, and private schools) that participated in the National Educational Study 2018 (Chile), which was applied to primary schoolchildren (4th grade, aged 8-10 years). Schools were divided into non-PSPA (n = 4,280) and PSPA (n = 710) during the year 2018. Changes in academic achievement from 2017 to 2018 and school climate were considered. PSPA was associated with improvements in maths (low-SES OR: 1.80, p < 0.001) and reading (middle-SES OR: 1.45, p = 0.029; low-SES OR: 1.47, p < 0.001). The indirect effect (IE) showed that PSPA partially mediated the relationship between SES and academic achievement in reading (IE = 1.017; SE = 0.12; 95%CI, -1.27, -0.77), maths (IE = -1.019; SE = 0.12; 95%CI, -1.25, -0.78), and school climate (IE = -0.46; SE = 0.52; 95%CI, -0.56, -0.35). In conclusion, PSPA was linked to positive changes in academic achievement, especially among low SES, and PSPA presented a potential mediating role in the relationship between SES of schools and academic achievement and school climate.

Exploring school culture and climate: The case of Dilla university community school.

This study was undertaken to explore the culture and climate of Dilla University Community School, focusing on examining the school's shared values and beliefs across seven key dimensions that constitute its shared values and beliefs: attention to detail, innovation and risk-taking, people orientation, team orientation, outcome orientation, aggressiveness, and stability within its cultural framework. The participants in this study were teachers selected using the purposive sampling technique. The research employed an exploratory qualitative case study. The interview was the major data gathering instrument from key informants and the results were analyzed using thematic analysis, aided by NVivo 10 software designed for qualitative research, which facilitated the classification, sorting, arrangement, and analysis of the data. According to the results, the school culture placed a high value on attention to detail, outcome orientation, people orientation, and aggressiveness. Conversely, areas needing improvement were identified as innovation and risk taking, team orientation, and stability. Hence, it was recommended that Dilla University Community School should work on establishing systems that encourage all crucial dimensions of key values and beliefs, fostering positive interaction among members for the progress of the school.

Relations between school climates and bullying behaviors in Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of prosocial tendency.

This research investigated the relationships between school climates and bullying behaviors in Chinese adolescents, and tested the mediating effect of prosocial tendency according to the seesaw effect. School climates were operationalized using three constructs: subjective diversity of student development goals, teacher support, and peer trust. Bullying behaviors included traditional (i.e., physical, nonphysical, and relational) and cyber bullying behaviors. We recruited 538 adolescents from three schools in Beijing, China (286 girls, 252 boys; average age = 12.47) and asked them to fill out the surveys measuring school climates and prosocial tendency at the outset and to report school bullying behaviors three months later. The results showed that subjective diversity of student development goals and peer trust were directly associated with less cyber bullying behavior. Moreover, teacher support and peer trust were indirectly associated with less traditional bullying behaviors via prosocial tendency. Our findings extend the existing literature on the relationships between school climates and bullying behaviors by incorporating different types of bullying behaviors, concentrating on Chinese adolescents from a cultural viewpoint, and tapping into the underlying mechanism via revealing prosocial tendency as a mediator. Theoretical and empirical contributions of this study, as well as practical implications are discussed.

Could school climate moderate the relationship between school bullying patterns and academic burnout in Chinese adolescents: A large cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: Students who are bullied not only affect academic performance, but also produce a range of psychological problems. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the association between school bullying and academic burnout among Chinese students, assuming school climate to play a moderating role in the aforementioned relationship. This study provides corresponding intervention strategies and reference data for the prevention and treatment of bullying in schools. METHODS: The data was obtained by a cross-sectional survey of 20,730 Chinese students from 23rd May to 23rd June 2022. Multiple linear regressions and Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) were used to examine the hypotheses. RESULTS: This study revealed that all dimensions of school bullying and school bullying level (ß = -0.09; 95 % CI, -4.946, -3.833) were associated with academic burnout. Verbal bullying (ß = 0.15; 95 % CI, 1.689, 1.972) had the strongest association with academic burnout, followed by social (ß = 0.14; 95 % CI, 1.496, 1.779) and physical bullying (ß = 0.13; 95 % CI, 1.451, 1.734), while cyber bullying (ß = 0.08; 95 % CI, 0.847, 1.127) had the weakest association with academic burnout. In addition, school climate can moderate the association between school bullying and academic burnout. Students who experienced school bullying and in bad school climate showed elevated levels of academic. LIMITATIONS: This study used cross-sectional data, preventing us from drawing conclusions about causation. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggested that creating a harmonious school climate and reducing school bullying may effectively alleviate academic burnout caused by school climate and school bullying.

Beyond School Climate: Validating the School as a Protective Factor-Brief Survey.

BACKGROUND: The conceptual framework for School as a Protective Factor approach was presented in a companion article in this issue of the journal. The current article describes the validation of the School as a Protective Factor-Brief (SPF-Brief), a 13-item survey measuring the 3 core constructs and 13 defining characteristics of this framework. METHODS: The SPF-Brief was validated through 2 studies. The developmental study used a longitudinal design including 1349 participants who completed surveys over 5 semesters, while the validation study used a cross-sectional design with 2775 participants. Both studies included middle and high school students. Factor analysis, growth model analysis, criterion-related validation, and outcome analysis were employed. RESULTS: Analyses provided strong evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the instrument and conceptual framework. Higher SPF-Brief scores were associated with higher math grades, English grades, and quality of life, as well as lower rates of anxiety, depression, conduct disorder, alcohol, e-cigarette, tobacco, and cannabis use. Effect size estimates ranged from moderate to strong. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest the utility of the SPF-Brief instrument and the School as a Protective Factor framework. Together, they may offer advantages to the traditional school climate approach.

The contribution of school climate, socioeconomic status, ethnocultural affiliation, and school level to language arts scores: A multilevel moderated mediation model.

Evidence suggests that schools can promote academic success and higher grades by reducing the negative effect of socioeconomic disadvantage through the mediation of a positive climate. However, a critical question largely remains unanswered: Does the mediation of positive school climate on the link between socioeconomic background and academic achievement remain similar for all schools in all cultures and among all ethnic groups? Using a nationally representative database with school climate and language arts test scores of primary and secondary Hebrew and Arabic language schools in Israel (N = 1188), we examined the contribution of both internal (i.e., school climate and grade level) and external (i.e., ethnocultural and socioeconomic backgrounds) influences on schools' language arts test scores. Using multilevel analyses, findings indicated that the magnitude of the mediation of positive school climate, as manifested by a greater sense of security and decreased school violence, in the link between socioeconomic status and test scores was significant only for elementary schools educating Arabic language minority populations and not for nonminority elementary Hebrew language schools. However, this was not the case for secondary schools, where evidence of higher test scores in schools with positive school climate did not emerge. Despite the many socioeconomic obstacles that ethnocultural minority students face, these results indicate that schools prioritizing a positive climate can increase academic opportunities and level the playing field for students from vulnerable cultures and backgrounds. School professionals are encouraged to invest resources that improve school climate to support underprivileged students' prosperity, especially in schools educating students from minoritized backgrounds, where more significant contributions likely exist. Implications for educational policy and future research are discussed.

Examining ethnic identity, school climate, and academic futility among minoritized students.

The present causal-comparative study examined the relation between school climate, ethnic identity, and academic futility among racially and ethnically minoritized students. The sample included 1721 racially and ethnically minoritized students identifying as Black, Asian, Latine, and Multiracial from 11 schools in the northeastern region of the United States. Regression models indicated a direct relation between the school climate subscales including School Connectedness, Safety, Character, Peer Support, Adult Support, Cultural Acceptance, Physical Environment, and Order and Discipline and academic futility for all groups in the study. Ethnic identity moderated the relation between school climate subscales and academic futility, although the impact differed across racial and ethnic groups. The present study's results highlight the similarities and differences in the educational experiences of minoritized students. The discussion provides recommendations for cultivating educational environments that are culturally affirming and informed to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Immigration stress and internalizing symptoms among Latinx and Asian American students: The roles of school climate and community violence.

Immigration-related problems and stressors are prevalent and pressing concerns among Latinx and Asian American school-age youth. Youth fears related to family deportation have been associated with adverse mental health outcomes. This study used an ecological framework to examine the impact of immigration stress and school- and community-level resources and protective factors on Latinx and Asian American youth internalizing symptoms. The sample included 1309 Asian American and 701 Latinx students (N = 2010) who participated in a routine school-based mental health needs assessment survey. Multilevel regressions analyses revealed that first-generation youth, Latinx youth, and female youth were more vulnerable to experiencing immigration-related problems and worry. Student perceptions of negative school climate and community violence were associated with greater internalizing symptoms regardless of immigration worry. Moderation analyses revealed that immigration-related problems and worry were positively associated with internalizing symptoms and that this relationship did not differ by race/ethnicity. However, immigration worry was a particular risk factor for students who perceived their neighborhood community as safe. Findings highlight that a sociopolitical climate that sows immigration-related challenges fuels youth distress and that students' experiences of their community environment can play an essential role as a psychological resource.

Regulatory flexibility and school climate moderate the relationship between stress exposure and depression severity in school educators.

School-related stress may impair the mental health and the ability of educators to function at school adaptively. According to the Conservation of Resources (COR) model, coping with stress is affected by internal personal resources and external interpersonal resources. The current study focused on regulatory flexibility as an internal personal resource and school climate as an external interpersonal resource. It tested their moderating role in the relationship between school-related stress exposure and depressive symptoms. 1530 educators participated in the study. The results revealed that school climate and regulatory flexibility play a significant role in determining the severity of depressive symptoms following stress exposure. Specifically, when either school climate and/or regulatory flexibility were low, there was a positive association between school-related stress exposure and depressive symptoms. Hence, greater exposure was associated with increased depressive symptoms. However, when both school climate and regulatory flexibility were higher, there were no associations between stress exposure and symptoms. Therefore, these educators showed significantly lower depressive symptoms independent of their stress exposure. The findings shed light on the importance of both internal and external resources in reducing the aversive effects of school-related stress. The study may pave the way to developing tailored interventions to reduce depressive symptoms and enhance well-being in educators.

Parent-adolescent conflict and problematic internet use among Chinese adolescents: the mediating role of depression and the moderating role of school climate.

BACKGROUND: Problematic Internet use (PIU) may lead adolescents to physical, emotional, social, or functional impairment due to the risky, excessive, or impulsive internet use manner. How do the experiences of adolescents influence them using the internet in a problematic manner? The answer to this question is the key to preventing and intervening PIU of adolescents. To address this question, we focus on the interactions among family (parent-adolescent conflict), school (school climate), and individual factors (PIU, depression), exploring the influence factors of PIU. METHODS: A moderated mediation model was constructed to explore the relationship between variables. Using a two-wave longitudinal design with a six-month interval between timepoints, this study collected data from 801 Chinese adolescents (411 boys, Mage = 14.68) by questionnaires. Path analysis was employed to test the model and participants' age, sex and baseline were controlled. RESULTS: Parent-adolescent conflict at Time 1 (T1) was positively related to PIU at Time 2 (T2) in adolescents. Depression at T2 mediated the relationship between parent-adolescent conflict at T1 and PIU at T2. School climate at T2 significantly moderated the mediation effect of depression on the relationship between parent-adolescent conflict at T1 and PIU at T2. Specifically, positive school climate could significantly weaken the negative effect of depression on PIU for adolescents with low level of depression. CONCLUSIONS: The present study reveals that parent-adolescent conflict leads to PIU in adolescents through depression whilst the school climate moderates the impacts of depression on PIU. This adds further evidence regarding the significance of systematically and consistently incorporating family and school in the alleviating of problem behaviors displayed by teens.

Disentangling Support for Violent and Non-violent Radicalization among Adolescents: A Latent Profile Analysis.

Although support for violent and non-violent radicalization can co-occur, only a few adolescents who support non-violent radicalization also support or engage in violent acts. Yet, little is known about what factors are associated with adolescents' paths towards or away from violent and/or non-violent radicalization. Within a socio-ecological and positive youth development framework, this study investigates profiles of support for violent and non-violent radicalization among adolescents attending high schools in Quebec (Canada) and whether such profiles are differently associated with experiences of social adversity, school-, family- and peer-related factors and psychological distress. Adolescents (N = 1911; Mage = 15.7; SDage = 0.98; 48.7% girls) completed an online survey during school hours. A Latent Profile Analysis on scores of support for violent and non-violent radicalization was conducted. A multinomial logistic regression was used to explore the associations between profiles and variables of interest. We identified six profiles of adolescents. The heterogeneity of profiles suggested multiple and complex combinations of support for violent and non-violent radicalization as well as their co-existence in some but not all profiles. Adolescents who reported less discrimination, more positive school experiences and more family support were less likely to belong to profiles that supported violence. Primary prevention efforts in the field of support for violent radicalization must adopt a socio-ecological and social justice approach and consider the diversity of adolescents' profiles, attitudes and experiences.

Trajectories of peer victimization among left-behind children in rural China: The role of positive school climate.

Left-behind children are likely to experience peer victimization, which can have detrimental consequences in their developmental outcomes. Yet, limited longitudinal research have examined peer victimization trajectories over time or the factors associated with left-behind children in China. The purpose of the present study was to examine what, if any, distinct trajectories of peer victimization exist among left-behind children and whether these trajectories are related to school climate, left-behind status, and their interactions. Participants were 853 Chinese left-behind children (Mage = 14.25, SD = 2.39; 43.4% girls) who participated in a four-wave longitudinal study conducted in rural China. Participants reported school climate (indexed by safety and order, acceptance and support, equality and fairness, autonomy and cooperation) at T1 and peer victimization across T1 to T4 spanning 2 years. Latent class growth analyses identified four peer victimization trajectories, including a stably low-decreasing group, a moderate-decreasing group, a high-decreasing group, and an increasing group. Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that children who perceived more positive school climate were more likely to exhibit a stably low-decreasing trajectory compared to the other three groups. In addition, among left-behind children who perceived more positive school climate, children with single-parent migrating were more likely to be members of the stably low-decreasing group as compared to those with both-parent migrating. Peer victimization among left-behind children is a concern especially for those who were left behind by both parents and perceived less positive school climate. Targeted school-based interventions and services focused on reducing peer victimization and improving school climate are needed for left-behind children, especially those with both-parent migrating.

Hate Speech Against Asian American Youth: Pre-Pandemic Trends and The Role of School Factors.

Although hate speech against Asian American youth has intensified in recent years-fueled, in part, by anti-Asian rhetoric associated with the COVID-19 pandemic-the phenomenon remains largely understudied at scale and in relation to the role of schools prior to the pandemic. This study describes the prevalence of hate speech against Asian American adolescents in the US between 2015 and 2019 and investigates how school-related factors are associated with whether Asian American youth are victims of hate speech at school. Analyses are based on a sample of 938 Asian American adolescents (Mage = 14.8; 48% female) from the three most recently available waves (2015, 2017, and 2019) of the School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey. On average, approximately 7% of Asian Americans were targets of hate speech at school between 2015 and 2019, with rates remaining stable over time. Findings also indicate that students had lower odds of experiencing hate speech if they attended schools with a stronger authoritative school climate, which is characterized by strict, yet fair disciplinary rules coupled with high levels of support from adults. On the other hand, Asian American youth faced higher odds of experiencing hate speech if they were involved in school fights. Authoritative school climate and exposure to fights are malleable and can be shaped directly by broader school climate related policies, programs and interventions. Accordingly, efforts to promote stronger authoritative climates and reduce exposure to physical fights hold considerable potential in protecting Asian American youth from hate speech at school.