Longitudinal associations between specific types of emotional reactivity and psychological, physical health, and school adjustment.

Using a multimethod, multiinformant longitudinal design, we examined associations between specific forms of positive and negative emotional reactivity at age 5, children's effortful control (EC), emotion regulation, and social skills at age 7, and adolescent functioning across psychological, academic, and physical health domains at ages 15/16 (N = 383). We examined how distinct components of childhood emotional reactivity directly and indirectly predict domain-specific forms of adolescent adjustment, thereby identifying developmental pathways between specific types of emotional reactivity and adjustment above and beyond the propensity to express other forms of emotional reactivity. Age 5 high-intensity positivity was associated with lower age 7 EC and more adolescent risk-taking; age 5 low-intensity positivity was associated with better age 7 EC and adolescent cardiovascular health, providing evidence for the heterogeneity of positive emotional reactivity. Indirect effects indicated that children's age 7 social skills partially explain several associations between age 5 fear and anger reactivity and adolescent adjustment. Moreover, age 5 anger reactivity, low-, and high-intensity positivity were associated with adolescent adjustment via age 7 EC. The findings from this interdisciplinary, long-term longitudinal study have significant implications for prevention and intervention work aiming to understand the role of emotional reactivity in the etiology of adjustment and psychopathology.

Childhood School Performance in Adults Diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Children with ADHD often tend to underperform in school. This partial study aimed to find out if the school experience of adults with higher ADHD symptomatology differs from those with lower and no ADHD symptomatology. METHOD: Based on the results of ASRS questionnaires, the respondents were divided into three groups (low, medium, and high) according to the manifested ADHD symptomatology. We explored their school experiences by looking at their grades for behavior at school, notes regarding their attendance, school expulsion, and other school experiences. RESULTS: Children with higher ADHD symptomatology were significantly more likely to be expelled, receive notes for bad behavior, disturbing or forgetting as well as receive reprimands from teachers. CONCLUSION: Our results show that children with increased ADHD symptomatology experience more difficulties with school behavior, they are frequently reprimanded, and they do receive more negative feedback regarding their attendance and tardiness from teachers.

Demographic and Disease-Related Predictors of Socioemotional Development in Children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1 and Plexiform Neurofibromas: An Exploratory Study.

Individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and plexiform neurofibromas (PNs) have a higher risk for socioemotional problems. The current study aims to identify the socioemotional developmental pattern and its predictors across childhood and adolescence in individuals with NF1 and PNs. Participants included 88 children with NF1 and PNs (aged 6-18 years old, M = 12.05, SD = 3.62, 57% male) in a natural history study. Neuropsychological assessments were administered three times over six years. There are large variabilities in socioemotional development in the study participants. Developmental patterns varied across socioemotional domains, respondent type (parent-report [PR] vs. child-report [CR]), demographic factors, and NF1 disease-related factors. For instance, lower parental education was associated with a greater decline in internalizing problems (PR) but a greater increase in school disconnectedness (CR) over time. Non-White (vs. White) children were more likely to experience increased adaptive skills (PR) but decreased personal adjustment (CR). Children with more visible tumors experienced a greater decrease in school disconnectedness (CR). Children with more NF1 complications experienced a greater decrease in externalizing problems (PR). These findings indicate the necessity of using multi-informants and investigating subdomains of socioemotional functions. They also highlight the importance of developing individualized approaches to patient care and interventions.

Associations between school difficulties and family type and the role of socioeconomic, behavior and health-related difficulties in early adolescents: a population-based study.

OBJECTIVES: Nowadays many early adolescents are living in non-intact families (parents divorced/separated, reconstructed families or single parents) and have many school difficulties (learning difficulty, skipping school, school absence due to family problems, grade repetition, low school performance, and school dropout ideation). This study assessed the associations between school difficulties and family type which remain little addressed and the confounding role of socioeconomic adversities and behavior, social support and health-related difficulties (BSSHDs). METHODS: The study population included 1559 middle-school adolescents from north-eastern France (mean age 13.5 ± 1.3). They completed at the end of school-year a questionnaire gathering socioeconomic adversities, school difficulties and BSSHDs (being obese, substances use, sustained physical/verbal violence, sexual abuse, perpetrated violence, poor social support, depressive symptoms, and suicide attempt; cumulated number noted BSSHDCM). Data was analyzed using logistic regression models. RESULTS: The adolescents with parents divorced/separated, reconstructed families or single parents had a much higher risk for various school difficulties than those in intact families (sex-age-adjusted odds ratios 1.60-4.70, mostly with p < 0.001). These risks were robust and remained significant (often with p < 0.01/0.001) after adjustment for socioeconomic adversities and BSSHDCM. The contributions of socioeconomic adversities plus BSSHDCM to the risks were mostly elevated (>40%, reaching 65%) while those of socioeconomic adversities alone were mostly moderate (<30%, but reaching 52%). CONCLUSIONS: Family type plays a strong role in school difficulties among early adolescents, mainly due to socioeconomic adversities and BSSHDCM. Our results may help primary care providers identify at-risk adolescents and their problems and establish timely prevention and care.HighlightsLearning difficulty, school absence, grade repetition, low academic performance, and school dropout ideation are common in early adolescents.The adolescents with parents divorced/separated, reconstructed families or single parents have up to 4.7-time higher risk for these school difficulties than those in intact families.These risks are robust after adjustment for socioeconomic, behavior and health-related difficulties which explain up to 65% of the risks.School-difficulty prevention should consider family features and include early monitoring behavior and health-related difficulties in adolescents.

School problems among left-behind children of labor migrant parents: a study in Vietnam.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have shown the effects of parental migration on the psychological and daily life of left-behind children (LBC) of labor migrant parents, but the results on school-related problems of LBC remain inconsistent. Additionally, there is a dearth of research on the factors affecting school problems among LBC, especially in the socio-cultural context of Vietnam. The purpose of this study was to confirm the school problems encountered by LBC in comparison with non-left-behind children (non-LBC). The study also aimed to examine variables of bonding of caregivers with children and resilience of children affecting school problems of LBC. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE: The convenient sampling approach was used in the study. The study sample included 792 Vietnamese school students (Mage = 12.65, SD = 1.60), with 439 children of labor migrant parents and a control group of 353 children of non-migrant parents. The School Problem Questionnaire, Parental Bonding Instrument and the Resilience Scale were employed in this study. RESULTS: There was no difference in school problems between the LBC and non-LBC groups. Resilience by goal planning (RGP), resilience by affect control (RAC), and resilience by family support (RFS) were identified as protective variables for children to overcome difficulties encountered in schools, with regression coefficients of -.21, -.33 and -.20, respectively. Meanwhile, bonding of caregivers with children by control (BCCo), and resilience by positive thinking (RPT) were found to be factors that increase school problems among LBC with the same regression coefficient of .12. CONCLUSIONS: Activities to support LBC should pay attention to improving resilience, namely affect control, goal planning, and promoting the role of caregivers for LBC.

The timing of opportunities to prevent mass shootings: a study of mental health contacts, work and school problems, and firearms acquisition.

Although it is important to know what public mass shooters have in common, it is also helpful to understand when different variables were present on their pathways to violence. This study explored the timing of key life events for the deadliest public mass shooters in the United States since Columbine (N = 14). Using data from official reports and supplementary sources, we found perpetrators' mental health contacts often began more than a decade before their mass shootings, and often ended more than a year before their attacks. Mental illness was typically a constant in their lives, not something that automatically caused them to attack. While treatment may help prevent some mass shootings, mental health professionals have limited influence over patients they have not recently seen. In turn, perpetrators' work and school problems also typically began long before their mass shootings, but these issues continued closer to their attacks. Employers and educators may therefore have an opportunity to intervene later in the process. Firearms acquisition often occurred in the final stages, after perpetrators were already interested in mass murder. Red flag laws and ERPOs which prohibit sales to explicitly dangerous individuals may therefore help reduce the prevalence of these attacks.

The Cost of Academic Focus: Daily School Problems and Biopsychological Adjustment in Chinese American Families.

Stress from daily school problems may accumulate and eventually lead to mental health issues in both youth and their parents. With a strong cultural emphasis on school performance, Chinese American families may be particularly vulnerable to such stress. In the current research, Chinese American adolescents (N = 95; Mean age = 13.7 years; 51% girls) and their parents completed daily diary reports of school problems and emotional well-being for 14 continuous days. Adolescents also provided four saliva samples per day for 4 consecutive days. Multilevel modeling analyses showed that youth's daily school problems predicted their lower happiness, higher distress, and higher total cortisol output above and beyond their emotional well-being and cortisol output the prior day. Moreover, there was a spillover effect such that youth's school problems also negatively predicted their parents' emotional well-being. Notably, the negative influence from school problems was moderated by children's cultural orientation, such that youth who were more oriented toward Chinese (vs. American) culture were more vulnerable to the school problems. Taken together, our results highlight the costs on biopsychological adjustment accompanying the academic focus in Chinese American youth and their parents.

Daily Mood Reactivity to Stress during Childhood Predicts Internalizing Problems Three Years Later.

The mental health toll of common school problems that many children encounter every day is not well understood. This study examined individual differences in mood reactivity to naturally occurring school problems using daily diaries, and assessed their prospective associations with youth mental health, three years later. At baseline, 47 children ages 8 to 13 years described common problems at school and mood on a daily basis, for 8 weeks. Thirty-three youth returned for follow-up three years later at ages 11 to 17 years. Children and parents also completed one-time questionnaires about youth mental health at baseline and follow-up. There were individual differences in the within-person associations between school problems and same-day and next-day mood. A greater tendency to react to school problems with more negative mood or less positive mood on the same day predicted more parent-rated internalizing and externalizing problems and child ratings of depression symptoms three years later, relative to baseline levels of symptoms. Daily diaries can help to identify specific targets of psychosocial interventions in real world settings.

Study of the Differential Consequences of Neglect and Poverty on Adaptive and Maladaptive Behavior in Children.

The consequences of physical neglect on retardation in the development of adaptive behaviors and the increased risk of poor physical and mental health are well documented. As physical neglect is a phenomenon found almost exclusively among socially deprived people, it is important to distinguish the health effects caused by neglect from those caused by poverty. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of poverty and physical neglect on the development of problematic externalizing and internalizing behaviors, adaptive skills, and school problems among school children between the ages of 3 and 12. A group of 157 children were chosen from 28 Andalusian schools and classified in three homogeneous groups. Children in group 1 (n = 53) had two target conditions: living in slums (poverty) and suffering from neglect. Children in group 2 (n = 52) had one target condition: living in the same slums as the children in group 1, but not suffering from neglect. Group 3 (n = 52) consisted of children from other (non-slum) neighborhoods who did not suffer from neglect. Adaptive and maladaptive behaviors were evaluated with the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). Significant differences were found between group 1 and group 2, but there were no important differences between group 2 and group 3. The conclusion was that externalizing and internalizing problems, school problems, and low adaptive skills found in neglected children were associated with neglect rather than with poverty or socially deprived environments.

Negative and Positive Emotion Responses to Daily School Problems: Links to Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms.

Examining emotion reactivity and recovery following minor problems in daily life can deepen our understanding of how stress affects child mental health. This study assessed children's immediate and delayed emotion responses to daily problems at school, and examined their correlations with psychological symptoms. On 5 consecutive weekdays, 83 fifth graders (M = 10.91 years, SD = 0.53, 51% female) completed brief diary forms 5 times per day, providing repeated ratings of school problems and emotions. They also completed a one-time questionnaire about symptoms of depression, and parents and teachers rated child internalizing and externalizing problems. Using multilevel modeling techniques, we assessed within-person daily associations between school problems and negative and positive emotion at school and again at bedtime. On days when children experienced more school problems, they reported more negative emotion and less positive emotion at school, and at bedtime. There were reliable individual differences in emotion reactivity and recovery. Individual-level indices of emotion responses derived from multilevel models were correlated with child psychological symptoms. Children who showed more negative emotion reactivity reported more depressive symptoms. Multiple informants described fewer internalizing problems among children who showed better recovery by bedtime, even after controlling for children's average levels of exposure to school problems. Diary methods can extend our understanding of the links between daily stress, emotions and child mental health. Recovery following stressful events may be an important target of research and intervention for child internalizing problems.

"estudar também se aprende": contribuições da psicologia histórico-cultural para a educação / "estudiar también se aprende": contribuciones de la psicología histórico cultural para la educación / "studying can also be learned": contributions of historical-cultural psychology for education

RESUMO. O presente trabalho traz um relato de caso referente ao projeto "Estudar Também se Aprende", desenvolvido como atividade de estágio supervisionado em educação por alunos do quinto ano de psicologia no ano de 2013. O projeto vem sendo executado desde 2008 em uma escola da rede estadual de ensino e é embasado nos pressupostos teóricos e práticos da psicologia histórico-cultural. Nessa perspectiva, entende-se que a educação é determinante para o desenvolvimento humano, pois não apenas o influencia como é responsável por orientá-lo, reestruturando as funções elementares em direção às funções psicológicas superiores. O projeto teve por objetivo ensinar aos alunos técnicas de estudo que permitissem o desenvolvimento das funções psicológicas superiores, movimentando o processo de formação de conceitos, e também produzindo melhora no desempenho escolar. Entende-se pela perspectiva teórica que o papel do educador é de organizador do meio social, ou seja, aquele que emprega os recursos mediadores concretos e simbólicos de modo a proporcionar a apropriação de conhecimentos pelos alunos. Para tanto, a proposta foi incentivar o hábito de estudar dos alunos, com estratégias sistematizadas para apropriação do conteúdo escolar. Durante a execução do trabalho percebeu-se que havia distanciamento dos alunos em relação ao significado socialmente atribuído à atividade do estudo. A partir da metodologia utilizada no projeto foi possível observar mudança na atribuição de sentido desta atividade. Assim, os resultados indicaram que os alunos que antes frequentavam a escola por obrigação, perceberam a necessidade de estudar de modo sistematizado como meio para desenvolver funções psicológicas.

RESUMEN. En este trabajo se presenta un caso clínico para el proyecto "Estudiar también se aprende" desarrollado como actividad de pasantía en Educación por los estudiantes del quinto curso de Psicología en 2013. El proyecto viene siendo ejecutado desde el año de 2008 en una escuela de enseñanza estatal y se fundamenta en los presupuestos teóricos y prácticos de Psicología Histórico Cultural. En esta perspectiva, se entiende que la educación es fundamental para el desarrollo humano, pues no sólo influye como es responsable por orientarle, la reestructuración de las funciones elementales hacia las funciones psicológicas superiores. El proyecto tenía como objetivo enseñar, a los estudiantes, técnicas que les permiten el desarrollo de las funciones psicológicas superiores, moviendo el proceso de formación de conceptos, además de producir una mejora en el rendimiento escolar. Se entiende por la perspectiva teórica que el papel del profesor es de organizador del entorno social, es decir, uno que utiliza los recursos mediadores concretos y simbólicos para proporcionar la apropiación del conocimiento por los estudiantes. Por lo tanto, la propuesta es fomentar el hábito de estudiar de los estudiantes con estrategias sistemáticas para la apropiación del contenido escolar. Durante la ejecución del trabajo, se observó que había un hueco de los estudiantes en relación a el significado socialmente atribuido a la actividad de estudio. A partir de la metodología utilizada en el proyecto fue posible observar un cambio en la atribución de significado a esta actividad. Por lo tanto, los resultados indicaron que estudiantes que antes atendían a la escuela por obligación, se dieron cuenta de la necesidad de estudiar de manera sistematizada como un medio para desarrollar funciones psicológicas.

ABSTRACT. This paper brings a case report regarding the project Estudar também se aprende (Brazilian Portuguese for "Studying can also be learned"), developed as an activity for the supervised teaching practice in educational psychology carried out by graduation students of the fifth year of Psychology in 2013. That project has been performed since 2008 in a public school; it is based on the theoretical and practical assumptions of Historical-Cultural Psychology. In this perspective, education is determinant for human development, for it influences and is responsible for guiding it, restructuring the elementary functions towards the higher psychological functions. The project aimed to teach students studying techniques that could allow the development of higher psychological functions, changing the process of concept formation, as well as improving school performance. In this perspective, the educator's role is to organize the social environment, i.e., the educator uses concrete and symbolic mediating resources in order to promote knowledge appropriation by the students. Thus, the proposal was to encourage the students' habit of studying, with systematized strategies for the appropriation of school contents. During the project execution, it was noticed that there was a gap between the students and the social meaning of the activity of studying. From the methodology used in the project, it was possible to notice a change in the meaning of that activity. The results indicated that the students who previously attended school as an obligation realized the need of systematized studying as a way to develop psychological functions.

Child Maltreatment, Problem Behaviors, and Neighborhood Attainment.

Using data from a prospective cohort design study of a group of children with documented histories of abuse and neglect (n = 908) and matched controls (n = 667), this paper examines whether problem behaviors (e.g., prostitution, crime, school problems, and homelessness) in young adulthood explain the link between maltreatment in childhood and living in high-risk neighborhoods in middle adulthood. Problem behaviors were assessed at mean age of 29 and neighborhood characteristics were assessed at mean age of 40. Child maltreatment predicted living in less desirable neighborhoods in middle adulthood. Problem behaviors in young adulthood partially mediated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and residence in less desirable neighborhoods in middle adulthood. The direct paths from child maltreatment to neighborhoods were not significant for Black children. For White children, there was a direct relationship between child maltreatment and living in an economically disadvantaged neighborhood. Problem behaviors were a stronger mediator between child maltreatment and living in more disordered and less socially cohesive neighborhoods for Black children, while the problem behaviors were a stronger mediator for living in more economically disadvantaged and less socially cohesive neighborhoods for White children. Further research is needed to understand these racial differences. Interventions should focus on preventing problem behaviors to minimize the risk of residency in high-risk neighborhoods.

Associations between participation in family activities and adolescent school problems.

INTRODUCTION: Adolescent risk outcomes related to school issues are widespread, with about 20% parents reporting poor school engagement amongst their youth. Previous literature suggests that adolescents who report strong bonds with their parents are often identified as being less likely to engage in risky behaviours, such as substance use. The current study sought to examine the association between the frequencies of selected family activities and school problems amongst adolescents after adjustments for family connectedness and other characteristics. METHODS: Data were drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997. Of the 8984 youth interviewed, 3855 also had a sibling interviewed who met the selection criteria. School problem outcomes measured were suspension occurrence, poor grades and highest grade completed low for age. Independent variables of interest were self-reported frequency of family dinner, fun and religious activities in a typical week. Multivariable logistic models were estimated for each outcome, and multivariable linear probability models were estimated adjusting for family fixed effects. RESULTS: Adjusting for family connectedness, there were significant associations between certain family activities and adolescent school problem measures. However, these results did not remain significant in models with family fixed effects, suggesting that associations could be driven by family-level confounders. DISCUSSION: This study did not find strong evidence of a protective relationship between family activities and school problems. Therefore, it suggested that programme and policymakers be cautious in overstating the importance of family activities in preventing adolescent risk outcomes until true causal relationships can be determined.

Factors Associated With Problems for Adolescents Returning to the Classroom After Sport-Related Concussion.

The primary objective of this study was to determine factors in the clinic setting associated with concussion-related problems in the school setting. A total of 91 student athletes, 13 to 19 years old, completed the SCAT2 and computerized testing during their initial visit to the clinic. During a follow-up telephone interview, one-third reported problems with return to school. The presence of problems reported in school was associated with severity of concussion as represented by recovery time and the overall number of symptoms at the first clinic visit. Gender, age, and previous concussions were not associated with school problems. Athletes with computerized test scores below the ninth percentile were more likely to report school problems. The current study offers some descriptive information for clinicians and ideas for future research related to adolescent athletes with concussion and problems with return to the classroom.

Brief Intervention Impact on Truant Youth Attitudes to School and School Behavior Problems: A Longitudinal Study.

Truancy continues to be a major problem, affecting most school districts in the U.S. Truancy is related to school dropout, with associated adverse consequences, including unemployment and delinquency. It is important to obtain a more complete picture of truants' educational experience. First, the present study sought to examine the longitudinal growth (increasing/decreasing trend) in truant youths' attitudes toward school and misbehavior in school (disobedience, inappropriate behavior, skipping school). Second, this study focused on examining the impact of a Brief Intervention (BI) targeting the youths' substance use, as well as socio-demographic and background covariates, on their attitudes toward school and school behavior problems over time. A linear growth model was found to fit the attitudes toward school longitudinal data, suggesting the youths' attitudes toward school are related across time. An auto-regressive lag model was estimated for each of the school misbehaviors, indicating that, once initiated, youth continued to engage in them. Several socio-demographic covariates effects were found on the youths' attitudes towards school and school misbehaviors over time. However, no significant, overall BI effects were uncovered. Some statistically significant intervention effects were found at specific follow-up points for some school misbehaviors, but none were significant when applying the Holm procedure taking account of the number of follow-ups. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Tics: los trastornos del movimiento más frecuentes en los niños / Tics: the most frequent movement disorders in children

Los tics son los trastornos del movimiento más frecuentes en los niños y su mayor prevalencia es en la edad escolar. La mayoría son transitorios, pero algunos pueden tener repercusiones negativas en los ámbitos escolar, familiar y social, que pueden llevar a fracaso escolar, baja autoestima y disfunción social. Algunos de los tics se relacionan con el trastorno de déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDAH) y con otras enfermedades que requieren diagnóstico oportuno y adecuado tratamiento. En esta revisión sobre los tics se incluyen los siguientes aspectos: epidemiología, etiología, factores de riesgo, caracterización, enfermedades asociadas, diagnóstico, tratamiento y pronóstico.

Tics are the most frequent movement disorders during childhood; their highest prevalence occurs during school age. Most tics are transient but some of them may have serious repercussions from the educational, familial, and social points of view, leading to school failure, low self-esteem, and social dysfunction. Some tics are related to the attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and to other diseases that should be opportunely and adequately treated. In this review on tics the following aspects are included: epidemiology, etiology, risk factors, characterization, associated diseases, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

Repensando os distúrbios de aprendizagem a partir da psicologia histórico-cultural / Rethinking learning disabilities seen from historical and cultural psychology / Repensando los trastornos de aprendizaje a partir de la psicología histórico-cultural

A psicologia histórico-cultural assume que o fator biológico determina a base das reações inatas dos indivíduos. Sobre esta base se constitui todo o sistema de reações adquiridas, sendo estas determinadas mais pela estrutura do meio cultural da criança do que pelas disposições biológicas. Se é por meio do processo de apropriação da cultura que cada homem adquire as capacidades humanas, a compreensão atual acerca dos distúrbios de aprendizagem pode ser reconfigurada, demonstrando que mediações adequadas e consistentes podem ter caráter revolucionário para a aprendizagem, ao tornarem presente o talento cultural quando o talento biológico não se revela como esperado.(AU)

Historical and Cultural Psychology foregrounds that the biological factor determines the basis of the individuals' innate reactions. The entire system of acquired reactions, determined more on the structure of the child's environment than on biological presuppositions, is constituted on this basis. If all human beings acquire their capacities through the process of cultural appropriation, current understanding on learning disabilities may be re-designed. It may be shown that adequate and consistent mediations may be revolutionary when they concretize the cultural talent in the case that the biological talent fails to reveal itself as expected.(AU)

La psicología histórico-cultural asume que el factor biológico determina la base de las reacciones innatas de los individuos. Sobre esta base se constituye todo el sistema de reacciones adquiridas, siendo éstas determinadas, más por la estructura del medio cultural del niño, que por las disposiciones biológicas. Si es por medio del proceso de apropriación de la cultura que cada hombre adquiere las capacidades humanas, la comprensión actual respecto a los trastornos de aprendizaje puede ser reconfigurada, demostrando que mediaciones adecuadas y consistentes pueden tener carácter revolucionario para el aprendizaje, al hacer presente el talento cultural cuando el talento biológico no se revela como esperado.(AU)

Repensando os distúrbios de aprendizagem a partir da psicologia histórico-cultural / Rethinking learning disabilities seen from historical and cultural psychology / Repensando los trastornos de aprendizaje a partir de la psicología histórico-cultural

A psicologia histórico-cultural assume que o fator biológico determina a base das reações inatas dos indivíduos. Sobre esta base se constitui todo o sistema de reações adquiridas, sendo estas determinadas mais pela estrutura do meio cultural da criança do que pelas disposições biológicas. Se é por meio do processo de apropriação da cultura que cada homem adquire as capacidades humanas, a compreensão atual acerca dos distúrbios de aprendizagem pode ser reconfigurada, demonstrando que mediações adequadas e consistentes podem ter caráter revolucionário para a aprendizagem, ao tornarem presente o talento cultural quando o talento biológico não se revela como esperado.

Historical and Cultural Psychology foregrounds that the biological factor determines the basis of the individuals' innate reactions. The entire system of acquired reactions, determined more on the structure of the child's environment than on biological presuppositions, is constituted on this basis. If all human beings acquire their capacities through the process of cultural appropriation, current understanding on learning disabilities may be re-designed. It may be shown that adequate and consistent mediations may be revolutionary when they concretize the cultural talent in the case that the biological talent fails to reveal itself as expected.

La psicología histórico-cultural asume que el factor biológico determina la base de las reacciones innatas de los individuos. Sobre esta base se constituye todo el sistema de reacciones adquiridas, siendo éstas determinadas, más por la estructura del medio cultural del niño, que por las disposiciones biológicas. Si es por medio del proceso de apropriación de la cultura que cada hombre adquiere las capacidades humanas, la comprensión actual respecto a los trastornos de aprendizaje puede ser reconfigurada, demostrando que mediaciones adecuadas y consistentes pueden tener carácter revolucionario para el aprendizaje, al hacer presente el talento cultural cuando el talento biológico no se revela como esperado.