Multimedia design for learner interest and achievement: a visual guide to pharmacology.

BACKGROUND: Medical education increasingly relies on digital learning materials. Despite recognition by the Association of American Medical Colleges Institute for Improving Medical Education, medical education design often fails to consider quality multimedia design principles. Further, the AAMC-IIME issued a call to study the role of design principles in medical education. Thus, the current study investigated the cognitive and affective effects of redesigning PowerPoint slides used to support pharmacology content during the preclinical years of medical school training. METHODS: Researchers implemented a quasi-experimental design, using traditionally-designed (original) slides with a Traditional group (n = 100) and slides redesigned to follow principles from the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning with an Experimental group (n = 40). Participants in the Experimental group completed a post-survey incorporating the Situational Interest Survey for Multimedia to indicate motivational engagement with the media. Students in the Experimental group also responded to additional preference questions. Researchers analyzed survey responses and students' scores in pharmacology-related coursework across the preclinical Foundations Phase of training to determine the impact on achievement and motivation. RESULTS: Findings related to learner achievement showed a modest but significant increase in the Experimental group compared to the Traditional group in the Cardiac, Pulmonary, and Renal (CPR) educational block (105%, normalized to Traditional group, p = 0.013) and cumulative pharmacology grades (101%, normalized to Traditional group, p = 0.043). Additionally, participants in the Experimental group indicated a significantly higher average triggered situational interest in redesigned slides (M = 4.85, SD = 0.25) than the original slides (M = 3.23, SD = 1.40, t=-6.33, p < 0.001). Similarly, the interest rating of the redesigned slides (M = 4.87, SD = 0.24) was significantly greater than that of the original slides (M = 3.89, SD = 0.86, t=-6.824, p < 0.001). Moreover, results further indicated significant differences in the maintained-feeling and maintained-value constructs, and all participants in the Experimental group indicated a preference for the redesigned slides. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide strong evidence in support of using the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning design principles to intentionally design media in medical education. In addition to increased achievement scores, students in the Experimental group demonstrated significantly higher levels of situational interest in the redesigned slides, especially triggered interest and maintained-feeling interest. Medical education learning designers should seriously consider redesigning media to achieve similar results.

Situational Interest within the Reciprocal Teaching Style: Roles of Dyad Composition and Students' Personal Variables.

Purpose: Based on person-context interaction, situational interest (SI) has been used to interpret students' motivation in task engagement. Through two consecutive studies, the purpose of this research was to investigate the roles of forms of dyads (self-selected vs. ability), feelings of relatedness and perceived competence in eliciting students' SI within the reciprocal teaching style. Method: The first study examined the role of dyad composition to determine how to group students to elicit high SI (self selected vs. ability dyads) and compared self-selected and ability dyads using repeated-measures of students' SI, perceived competence and feelings of relatedness, with 99 students in a PE unit. Based on the results of this first study, demonstrating the benefits of the self-selected dyads, the second study aimed to investigate the role of feelings of relatedness and perceived competence in eliciting students' SI within football (99 students) and gymnastics units (109 students) using MANOVAs and a cluster approach. Results: The first study's results showed higher scores for SI, perceived competence and feelings of relatedness in favor of self-selected dyads compared to ability dyads. In the second study within self-selected dyads, the results showed a small effect of perceived competence and a stronger effect of feelings of relatedness on SI. Conclusion: To elicit students' SI within the reciprocal teaching style, teachers should favor self-selected dyads. This paper highlights the importance of designing contexts where students can develop good peer relationships to increase SI. The implementation of self-selected grouping in PE is interesting since it is less time-consuming than other grouping strategies.

Are curiosity and situational interest different? Exploring distinct antecedents and consequences.

BACKGROUND: A controversy over the distinction between curiosity and situational interest has recently resurfaced. Nonetheless, empirical research comparing the two is noticeably lacking. AIMS: We attempted to fill this gap and provide much-needed evidence of the distinction between curiosity and situational interest by examining the antecedents and consequences of the two constructs. METHODS: We assessed enjoyment, novelty, uncertainty and surprise as potential antecedents and information seeking, individual interest, career intention and achievement as potential outcomes of curiosity and situational interest among 219 Korean sixth graders in the domain of science. RESULTS: Of the hypothesized antecedents, enjoyment during science class related most strongly to students' situational interest in science, whereas novelty in science class related most strongly to students' science curiosity. Uncertainty and surprise in science class related to only science curiosity and not situational interest in science. Among the outcomes considered, situational interest in science related to only students' individual interest in science. In comparison, science curiosity related significantly to all science outcomes measured in this study. Science curiosity also significantly mediated the relationships between the antecedents and outcomes in science. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results support the distinction between curiosity and situational interest and suggest different ways to promote each motivation construct depending on desired outcomes in the science classroom.

The Effects of Cognitively Challenging Physical Activity Games versus Health-Related Fitness Activities on Students' Executive Functions and Situational Interest in Physical Education: A Group-Randomized Controlled Trial.

This study compared cognitively challenging physical activity games and health-related fitness activities in terms of their effects on students' executive functions and situational interest in physical education. A total of 102 fourth- and fifth-grade students (56 boys, 46 girls) participated in this study. A group-randomized controlled trial design involving an acute experiment was used. Two intact classes of students (one fourth-grade and one fifth-grade) were randomly assigned to each one of the three groups. Students in Group 1 participated in cognitively challenging physical activity games, students in Group 2 participated in activities for developing their health-related fitness, and Group 3 students were the control group without physical education. Executive functions were measured pre- and post-intervention with the design fluency test, whereas situational interest was only measured post-intervention with the situational interest scale. Group 1 students who played cognitively challenging physical activity games had increased their executive functions' scores more than the Group 2 students involved in health-related fitness activities. Students of both these groups outperformed control group students. Moreover, Group 1 students reported higher levels of instant enjoyment and total interest than Group 2 students. The results of this study suggest that cognitively challenging physical activity games can be an effective means for enhancing executive functions, and motivate students to be involved in interesting and enjoyable forms of physical activity.

Effects of reading contextualized physics problems among men and women: A psychophysiological approach.

To counteract declining interest in science, contextualizing course material has been suggested, despite little evidence supporting this strategy. We assessed how reading physics problems in different contexts-none, technical, or humanistic-impacted performance and implicit cognitive and affective situational interest (SI) among undergraduate men and women (n = 60). We hypothesized that contextualized problems would increase cognitive SI, boosting performance. We also investigated existing hypotheses that this influence would be stronger when contexts matched stereotypical gender interests. Pupillometric and electroencephalographic data served to indicate cognitive SI, while electrodermal activity (EDA) and valence were measures of affective SI. Significantly higher valence was observed in decontextualized than humanistic problems (p = 0.003) specifically among men (p < 0.001). Greater EDA (p = 0.019) and decontextualized problems (p < 0.001) yielded greater performance than contextualized problems for all participants. Results emphasize the importance of affective SI and of avoiding gender biases in curricular development. This study encourages caution if implementing contextualization.

Influence of students' self-directed learning on situational interest: A prospective randomised study.

INTRODUCTION: Evaluate the effectiveness of a newly developed interactive 3D head and neck software package on students' situational interest and knowledge acquisition. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective randomised controlled study was carried out on two groups of dental students, 25 each. The study group "A" received education on head and neck anatomy using an interactive 3D software package. The same content was delivered to the students in group B via the standard PowerPoint presentation. The same lecturer delivered the educational modules over 80 min. Throughout the course of learning, the students completed a situational interest questionnaire, every 20 min. At the end of the session, each participant completed a knowledge acquisition test. RESULTS: Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test showed a clear difference in the pattern of situational interest between the two groups; a statistically significant drop in the interest in the head and neck was noted amongst the students after 40 min in group B (p < .05). An opposite pattern was detected amongst the students in group A. No statistically significant differences were detected in the knowledge acquisition between the two groups. CONCLUSION: The 3D software package of the head and neck anatomy has augmented the students' situational interest and improved their knowledge acquisition. However, further research is required to evaluate students' perception and experience of its use before it is widely generalised in universities and educational institutes.

Effect of different teaching/learning approaches using virtual patients on student's situational interest and cognitive load: a comparative study.

BACKGROUND: Virtual Patients (VPs) have been receiving considerable attention in medical education as an authentic learning and teaching approach. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of using different approaches of conduction of virtual patients (VPs) on students' cognitive load and situational interest. METHODS: The study is an experimental study. Two different cohorts have participated during the academic year 2019/2020 and 2020/2021. The first cohort (Group 1) was exposed to a lecture followed by an independent VPs session, and the second cohort (Group 2) was exposed to a collaborative VPs session. The situational interest and Cognitive load were compared between the two groups. All sessions are about one topic related to maxillofacial trauma. RESULTS: Findings showed that there was no significant difference between the median score of the situational interest at repeated time points during the Collaborative VPs (Group 2). However, in group 1, there was a significant difference between the median score of situational interest at repeated time points during independent VPs where the lowest score was found to be at the end of the session. Also, results showed that the collaborative VPs (Group 2) showed a high median score of situational interest than both lecture and independent VPs (Group 1). Furthermore, the study showed that there is no significant difference in the intrinsic cognitive load among the three sessions. However, the extraneous cognitive load was low in collaborative VPs (Group 2) than in both lecture and independent VPs sessions (Group 1). CONCLUSION: The use of VPs in a collaborative interactive learning activity is more effective than its use as an independent learning activity in enhancing students' situational interest and reducing cognitive load. However, giving independent VPs after the lecture with the same topic is considered a limitation of the study as this can affect the situational interest of the students by filling their gab of knowledge.

Developing and Validating the Teacher Rating Scale of Learning Interest for Kindergarteners.

Studies have investigated learning interest based on either 2- or 4-factor theoretical framework. Empirical studies showed supportive evidence only toward the 2-factor learning interest model, but it was primarily demonstrated above the secondary level. It is unclear whether the dimensionality of the learning interest of kindergarteners is consistent with those studies conducted above the secondary level due to the absence of an instrument for measuring kindergarteners' learning interests. An effective and efficient learning interest scale was developed and validated for teachers' use to rate kindergarteners to provide useful information for improving teaching and learning in practice. A total of 132 5-year-old kindergarteners were rated by 5 teachers in the formal study. The results clearly showed: (1) the developed teacher rating scale of learning interest was valid for understanding kindergarteners' learning interests and was equally suitable for boys and girls. (2) The 2-factor learning interest model was the best theoretical viewpoint for understanding kindergarteners' learning interests across gender. The implications for learning interest research and practice are also discussed.

Influencing factors of learning sustained attention for nursing students in online settings: A structural equation model.

BACKGROUND: Sustained attention is a key variable affecting nursing students' academic performance during online learning process. However, factors contributing to sustained attention remain to be determined. AIMS: To analyze the path relationships among the influencing factors for nursing students' sustained attention in online learning using a structural equation model. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey was administered. METHODS: Nursing students from 35 nursing schools in China were invited to participate in this survey study. Once participating in nursing programs and receiving online learning, they were eligible for the study. The data were collected online via the Questionnaire Star platform from March 29 to April 19, 2020. A structural equation modelling (SEM) approach was utilized to analyze the relationships between sustained attention and influencing factors (situational interest, anxiety, cognitive load, technology efficacy and professional identity). Furthermore, multi-group SEM analysis was conducted to examine whether the model equally fitted nursing students in different levels of programs. RESULTS: A total of 1089 nursing students completed the questionnaires. The majority (77.3%) were female and the mean age (SD) was 21.9 (4.4) years. A half (50.3%) were enrolled in the undergraduate programs. Results suggested that situational interest (ß = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.24) and anxiety (ß = -0.70, 95% CI: -0.76, -0.64) directly affected sustained attention. Both technology efficacy (ß = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.15, 0.28) and professional identity (ß = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.26) had conferred indirect effects on sustained attention through academic emotions (i.e., situational interest and anxiety). The cognitive load directly affected sustained attention (ß = -0.15, 95% CI: -0.20, -0.09) and indirectly affected sustained attention through anxiety (ß = -0.32, 95% CI: -0.37, -0.26). There was no significant difference in the model fit among nursing students in various programs, including diplomatic, associate and bachelor's degree and above programs (∆χ2 = 27.228, p = 0.611). CONCLUSIONS: Technology efficacy, professional identity, situational interest, anxiety and cognitive load are identified as the main elements affecting nursing students' sustained attention. This model is equally suitable for nursing students in different levels of nursing programs. During the process of online learning, students' attributes, emotions and cognition should be considered to help students achieve learning goals in nursing education.

Effects of Exergaming on College Students' Situational Interest, Self-Efficacy, and Motion Sickness.

Objective: Given the low levels of physical activity (PA) among U.S. college students, the use of exergaming as a supplement to traditional exercise may promote higher levels of motivation and PA. Therefore, this study's purpose was to examine the effect of two different exergames on college students' situational interest (SI), self-efficacy (SE), and equilibrium change (EQC) compared to traditional treadmill walking. Methods: Sixty college students (30 female; Mage = 23.6 ± 4.1 years; MBMI = 23.9 ± 4.0 kg/m2) participated in three separate 20 min exercise sessions: (1) Xbox 360 Kinect Just Dance; (2) Xbox 360 Kinect Reflex Ridge; and (3) traditional treadmill walking at 4.0 mph. Participants' SI, SE, and EQC were measured after each session using a series of validated surveys. Results: A mixed model analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with repeated measures evaluated mean differences between exercise sessions for all outcomes. Significant main effects were observed between the three exercise sessions (all p < 0.01). Specifically, Just Dance and Reflex Ridge sessions yielded significantly higher SI scores than treadmill exercise, F (10, 49) = 54.61, p < 0.01, η2 = 0.92. In addition, participants experienced significantly lower EQC in Reflex Ridge than in treadmill exercise, F (2, 58) = 4.26, p = 0.02, η2 = 0.13. No differences were identified for SE. Conclusion: The integration of exergaming into traditional exercise routines may help to promote higher levels of SI but not SE amongst college students. RR exergaming also demonstrated low EQC as compared to traditional exercise. Experimental study designs are warranted to provide additional evidence on the efficacy of exergaming.

Situational interest impacts college students' physical activity in a design-based bike exergame.

BACKGROUND: Active videogames or exergames have been used as an innovative way to promote physical activity (PA) among various populations. A player's interest in active videogames is associated with the fun and entertaining nature of the games and may trigger situational interest, thus increasing engagement. The goal of this study was to examine the impact of situational interest dimensions on college students' PA when playing the design-based bike exergame Greedy Rabbit (Vescape, Berlin, Germany). METHODS: Sixty undergraduate students (age: 20.8 ± 1.3 years, mean ± SD, 18-25 years old; 51.7% males) were recruited from the kinesiology department of a university located in the southern region of Belgium. The participants were assigned to an experimental group (n = 41) or a control group (n = 19) based on an incremental cycling test. Students in the experimental group engaged in 1 session of Greedy Rabbit (Vescape) while students in the control group engaged in 1 session of a placebo version of Greedy Rabbit (Vescape). The length of the sessions ranged from 24 min to 31 min. RESULTS: Results for the control group indicated that the players' PA metrics (cadence: F(19, 360) = 1.43, p = 0.11; heart rate: F(19, 360) = 1.16, p = 0.29; oxygen consumption: F(19, 360) = 0.83, p = 0.67) were stable during the exergame. Results for the experimental group demonstrated the effects of time on the players' PA metrics and revealed significant associations between the change in the players' situational interest dimensions and PA metrics (cadence: F(19, 800) = 26.30, p < 0.01; heart rate: F(19, 800) = 19.77, p < 0.01; oxygen consumption: F(19, 800) = 10.04, p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: An approach using a design-based exergame may be a relevant strategy for promoting levels of PA that yields positive health-related outcomes among college students.

The Roles of Sex and Minority Status in Children's Motivation and Psychomotor Learning.

In this study, we had two inter-related goals: (a) to examine sex and minority status differences on children's motivation for physical education (PE; i.e., their expectancy beliefs, subjective task values, and situational interest) and their psychomotor learning outcomes (i.e., motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and in-class physical activity); and (b) to examine the relationships between children's motivation and their psychomotor learning outcomes while testing the moderation effects of sex and minority status. We recruited 195 fourth and fifth-grade students (101 boys; 94 girls; Mage = 10.7, SD = 0.7 years) from three elementary schools in North Texas. Using multivariate analysis of variance, we identified a significant sex difference that favored boys in motivation and psychomotor learning outcomes, with no significant minority status difference in relation to these variables. Regression analysis revealed that children's expectancy beliefs were significantly associated with both motor competence (R2 = 11%) and cardiorespiratory fitness (R2 = 16%), while both situational interest and sex were associated with in-class physical activity (R2 = 18%). Thus, improving children's expectancy beliefs may be a means of enhancing psychomotor learning outcomes in PE, especially for girls. Enhancing children's beliefs in their own ability and offering diversified PE content so as to generate greater interest may facilitate psychomotor learning.

Learning From Instructional Videos: Learner Gender Does Matter; Speaker Gender Does Not.

One crucial design characteristic of auditory texts embedded in instructional videos is the speaker gender, which has received some attention from empirical researcher in the recent years. Contrary to the theoretical assumption that similarity between the speaker's and the learner's gender might positively affect learning outcomes, the findings have often been mixed, showing null to contrary effects. Notwithstanding the effect on the outcomes, a closer look at how the speaker's gender and speaker-learner similarities further determine cognitive variables, such as different cognitive load types, is overdue. Moreover, on the part of the learner, the role of situational interest in the learning topic that might be gender related has been neglected so far. Therefore, this study explored the role of speaker and learner gender and their interaction regarding learning outcomes. We broaden our perspective by investigating the effects of gender-related differences concerning situational interest in the topic being taught and by determining different types of cognitive load. In a 2 (female/male speaker) × 2 (female/male learner) within- and between-subject design, 95 students learned about female and male human sexual maturity with an instructional video containing auditory explanations. Analysis results indicate that speaker gender and speaker-learner gender similarity had no impact on learning gains, situational interest, and cognitive load types. However, the results demonstrate that learner's gender, especially for the topic of female sexual maturity, matters the most in line with the assessed variables. Compared with males, females had higher learning gains, reported higher interest in the topic, and invested more germane cognitive resources. Thus, instructional designers may want to consider learner gender-dependent interest and how it can be triggered when creating videos with auditory explanations.

The Effects of Choice on the Reading Comprehension and Enjoyment of Children with Severe Inattention and no Attentional Difficulties.

It has been proposed that enhancing motivation supports the learning of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Less is known if inattentive children with no ADHD diagnosis may similarly benefit, when being motivated to engage in an academic task. Using a repeated-measures design, this study investigated the effects of text choice as an intrinsic motivator on the reading comprehension and enjoyment of Year 4 children attending mainstream primary schools (N = 92; aged 8-9 years; 48 boys); comparing those with no attentional difficulties and severe inattention. We hypothesized that 1) choice would increase reading comprehension and enjoyment 2) choice would increase the reading comprehension and enjoyment of children both with severe inattention and no attentional difficulties 3) choice effects would be significantly greater for children with severe inattention than those with no attentional difficulties. Children participated in a reading intervention that included a Choice (experimental) and a No Choice (control) condition. Child inattention was measured via a Virtual Reality Continuous Performance Task (Omission errors, Reaction Time Variability) and Teacher Ratings. Choice significantly increased reading comprehension, but not enjoyment compared with no choice. Choice improved the reading comprehension of children with both severe inattention and no attentional difficulties. Choice did not benefit the reading of severely inattentive children more than that of children with no attentional difficulties. These findings underline the educational benefits of choice for young readers both with severe inattention and no attentional difficulties, which are further discussed drawing on existing theory and research.

Evaluation of a Process by which Individual Interest Supports Learning within a Formal Middle School Classroom Context.

The affective domain and its impact on science achievement has been studied with increasing attention over the past decade. However, there has been little empirical work on how individual interest, and facilitation of situational interest in the classroom, facilitates learning of concepts within fine-grained units of instruction. Drawing upon previous theoretical and empirical work, we test the hypothesis that individual interest facilitates situational interest, and that this in turn facilitates content learning, with respect to a 10-day health education intervention focused on teaching middle school students about light, color and vision. We found that individual interest in science facilitates situational interest in the classroom activities and the teacher's instruction, and that situational interest has a positive and significant effect on learning concepts related to light and vision. Our data suggest that facilitating situational interest is a requirement if individual interest and prior knowledge are to be effective scaffolds for conceptual learning. However, targeting of other affective traits like motivation and engagement or cognitive processes like goal setting may be necessary to fully harness students' interest toward effective scaffolding of learning.

Development of an Online Experiment Platform for High School Biology.

We developed a novel online platform, Rex (Real experiments) that immerses students in a scientific investigative process. Rex is a virtual web-based biological science experiment platform, hosted by real scientists, and uses actual lab experiments that generate real data for students to collect, analyze, and interpret. Seven neuroscience experiments use zebrafish and rats as model systems to study the effects of drugs such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), caffeine, alcohol, and cigarette smoke, which are of interest to high school students. We carried out a small field-test of Rex in a variety of high school biology classrooms (e.g., standard, honors, AP, anatomy/physiology) to obtain student and teacher feedback about the implementation and usability of the program. We also assessed student situational interest (SI) to determine whether the Rex experiment captured students' attention, and whether it was an enjoyable and meaningful experience. Overall, students reported a moderate level of SI after participating in the Rex experiments. Situational interest did not differ across teachers, class section, class level, or the type of experiment. In addition, we present details of the technical issues encountered in the classroom, and we provide guidance to readers who may want to use the resource in their classrooms.

Motivational strategies and approaches for single and multi-player exergames: a social perspective.

BACKGROUND: Exergames have attracted the interest of academics, practitioners, and designers, in domains as diverse as health, human-computer interaction, psychology, and information technology. This is primarily because exergames can make the exercise experience more enjoyable and entertaining, and in turn, can increase exercise levels. Despite the many benefits of exergames, they suffer from retention problems. Thus, the objective of this article was to review theories and game elements that have been empirically examined or employed in an attempt to make exergames more motivating so people engage in sustained physical activity (duration of physical activity) in a repeating pattern over time (frequency of physical activity). METHODOLOGY: A literature search and narrative review were conducted. RESULTS: Five major theories and elements were prevalent in the exergaming literature: (1) self-determination theory, (2) gamification, (3) competition and cooperation, (4) situational interest, and (5) social interaction. These theories and elements are important for encouraging long-term play and show promise for designing exergames to promote sustained engagement and motivate physical activity. We discuss their strengths and weaknesses throughout the paper. CONCLUSIONS: The long-term effectiveness of exergame interventions is unclear mainly because of the limited amount of long-term studies. Better metrics are also needed to evaluate this effectiveness. We also identified particular attention to social factors and group dynamics, such as multi-player exergames and more effective player matchmaking strategies for increasing social connectedness, as a key area of future research.

Evaluation of a concept-based physical education unit for energy balance education.

BACKGROUND: Physical education (PE) is a key channel that impacts children's decisions and behaviors for healthful living. This study evaluated the effects of a concept-based PE (CBPE) instructional unit, featured by energy balance (EB) education, on students' knowledge learning, situational interest, cognitive, and physical engagements as well as teachers' perceptions. METHODS: Fourth and 5th grade students (n = 468) in a mid-western state of the United States were recruited as the participants. Four elementary schools were randomized to the CBPE or control groups. Students' EB knowledge, situational interest, cognitive engagement, and physical engagement were measured by a knowledge test, the Situational Interest Scale-Elementary, written task sheets, and accelerometers, respectively, while teachers' perceptions of the CBPE unit were captured by individual interviews at the end of the experiment. RESULTS: The CBPE group showed a significant increase in EB knowledge, while the control did not. Both groups showed a similar increasing trend for situational interest over time, although the statistical results favored the control group. For physical engagement, the CBPE group demonstrated a statistically different but substantively similar level of in-class physical activity compared to the control group. The CBPE group also showed a moderate level of cognitive engagement throughout the unit. The PE teachers reported overall positive perceptions about teaching the CBPE unit. CONCLUSION: These results support the utility of the CBPE unit in enhancing EB education along with facilitating positive student interest and engagement as well as positive teaching experiences.

Stereotype Threat Effects on Learning From a Cognitively Demanding Mathematics Lesson.

Stereotype threat-a situational context in which individuals are concerned about confirming a negative stereotype-is often shown to impact test performance, with one hypothesized mechanism being that cognitive resources are temporarily co-opted by intrusive thoughts and worries, leading individuals to underperform despite high content knowledge and ability (see Schmader & Beilock, ). We test here whether stereotype threat may also impact initial student learning and knowledge formation when experienced prior to instruction. Predominantly African American fifth-grade students provided either their race or the date before a videotaped, conceptually demanding mathematics lesson. Students who gave their race retained less learning over time, enjoyed the lesson less, reported a diminished desire to learn more, and were less likely to choose to engage in an optional math activity. The detrimental impact was greatest among students with high baseline cognitive resources. While stereotype threat has been well documented to harm test performance, the finding that effects extend to initial learning suggests that stereotype threat's contribution to achievement gaps may be greatly underestimated.

Gender-Specific Covariations between Competencies, Interest and Effort during Science Learning in Virtual Environments.

Women are still underrepresented in engineering courses although some German universities offer separate women's engineering courses which include virtual STEM learning environments. To outline information about fundamental aspects relevant for virtual STEM learning, one has to reveal which similarities both genders in virtual learning show. Moreover, the question arises as to whether there are in fact differences in the virtual science learning of female and male learners. Working with virtual STEM learning environments requires strategic and arithmetic-operative competences. Even if we assume that female and male learners have similar competences levels, their correlational pattern of competences, motivational variables, and invested effort during virtual STEM learning might differ. If such gender differences in the correlations between cognitive and motivational variables and learning behavior were revealed, it would be possible to finetune study conditions for female students in a separate engineering course and shape virtual STEM learning in a more gender-appropriate manner. That might support an increase in the number of women in engineering courses. To reveal the differences and similarities between female and male learners, a field study was conducted with 56 students (female = 27, male = 29) as part of the Open MINT Labs project (the German term for Open STEM Labs, OML). The participants had to complete a virtual STEM learning environment during their regular science lessons. The data were collected with questionnaires. The results revealed that the strategic competences of both genders were positively correlated with situational interest in the virtual learning environment. This result shows the big impact strategic competences have for both genders regarding their situational interest. In contrast, the correlations between mental effort and competences differed between female and male participants. Especially female learners' mental effort decreased if they had more strategic competences. On the other hand, female learners' mental effort increased if they had more arithmetic-operative competences. All in all, female learners seem to be more sensitive to differences in their strategic and arithmetic-operative competences regarding their mental effort. These results imply that the implementation of separate women's engineering courses could be an interesting approach.