Comparative evaluation of silver nanoparticles and human platelet rich-plasma versus traditional therapy in the treatment of murine chronic toxoplasmosis.

Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide parasitic disease infecting about one-third of the human population. At present, licensed medications are incapable of curing human chronic infection. The present work aimed to evaluate for the first time the combination between (spiramycin and human platelet rich plasma), in addition to (spiramycin and silver-nanoparticles) in treating murine experimental toxoplasmosis using parasitological, biochemical, histopathological and immunohistochemical studies. Seventy-seven Swiss albino male mice divided into seven groups according to the treatment used as follows: (GI): control negative; (GII): control infected; (GIII): spiramycin; (GIV): Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs); (GV): Human platelet-rich plasma (HPRP); (GVI): combined spiramycin and AgNPs; (GVII): combined spiramycin and HPRP. Obtained results demonstrated that (spiramycin and AgNPs) treated group showed significant reduction of T. gondii tissue cysts number, the lowest level of serum malondialdehyde, remarkable improvement in pathological changes in different tissues of mice e.g. brain and liver and weak expression of EGFR in brain tissues of mice compared to control infected group. Moreover, AgNPs administered alone produced minimal anti-Toxoplasma results, whereas their combination with spiramycin exhibited significant therapeutic efficacy. In conclusion, combination therapy of spiramycin and AgNPs may represent a unique possible adjuvant therapy for reducing the pathogenic, toxic, and inflammatory consequences of toxoplasmosis on the brain and liver tissues in immunocompetent mice, and the expression of EGFR in brain tissues of mice is a good tool for evaluating the therapeutic improvement of murine toxoplasmosis.

The prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis using a combination of Spiramycin and Cotrimoxazole: The long-time experience of a tertiary referral centre.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii and is responsible for gestational and congenital infections worldwide. The current standard therapy is based on the administration of Spiramycin to prevent trans-placental transmission. Other therapies are being studied to reduce the rates of foetal transmission and symptomatic congenital infection. OBJECTIVES: We report our long-standing experience in maternal toxoplasmosis infection treatment using a combination of Spiramycin-Cotrimoxazole, assessing its effectiveness in preventing vertical transmission compared to the expected incidence of congenital infection. METHODS: We retrospectively collected cases of pregnant women referred to our centre for suspected toxoplasmosis infection according to Lebech criteria, treated with Spiramycin-Cotrimoxazole. RESULTS: Of 1364 women referred to our centre, postnatal follow-up of primary toxoplasmosis was available in 562 cases (73.9%). The overall vertical transmission rate was 3.4% in women treated immediately with Spiramycin-Cotrimoxazole after the diagnosis of infection. In comparison, it was 7.7% in women undergoing the same therapy but late or with poor compliance. The foetal transmission rate was 71.4% in untreated cases. All the infected newborns of mother treated adequately with Spiramycin-Cotrimoxazole were asymptomatic afterbirth, while 6/21 infected infants of the inadequate Spiramycin-Cotrimoxazole therapy group had postnatal sequelae (28.5%). The incidence of transmission after appropriate Spiramycin-Cotrimoxazole therapy was significantly lower than the expected rate reported in literature. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of Spiramycin and Cotrimoxazole is safe and effective in preventing foetal congenital toxoplasmosis and reducing sequelae in case of in-utero infection. The timing and adherence to the therapy are crucial to lowering the risk of congenital infection and neonatal morbidity.

MicroRNA mmu-miR-511-5p: A promising Diagnostic Biomarker in Experimental Toxoplasmosis Using Different Strains and Infective Doses in Mice with Different Immune States Before and After Treatment.

PURPOSE: Searching for a novel early diagnostic biomarker for toxoplasmosis, real-time-PCR was currently used to measure the serum mmu-miR-511-5p level in male Swiss-albino mice infected with either; ME49 or RH Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) strains. METHODS: Three mice groups were used; (GI) constituted the non-infected control group, while (GII) and (GIII) were experimentally infected with ME49 or RH strains, respectively. GII mice were orally infected using 10 or 20 ME49 cysts (ME-10 and ME-20), both were subdivided into; non-treated (ME-10-NT and ME-20-NT) and were further subdivided into; immunocompetent (ME-10-IC and ME-20-IC) [euthanized 3-days, 1, 2, 6 or 8-weeks post-infection (PI)], and immunosuppressed using two Endoxan® injections (ME-10-IS and ME-20-IS) [euthanized 6- or 8-weeks PI], and spiramycin-treated (ME-10-SP and ME-20-SP) that received daily spiramycin, for one-week before euthanasia. GIII mice individually received 2500 intraperitoneal RH strain tachyzoites, then, were subdivided into; non-treated (RH-NT) [euthanized 3 or 5-days PI], and spiramycin-treated (RH-SP) that were euthanized 5 or 10-days PI (refer to the graphical abstract). RESULTS: Revealed significant upregulation of mmu-miR-511-5p in GII, one-week PI, with gradually increased expression, reaching its maximum 8-weeks PI, especially in ME-20-NT group that received the higher infective dose. Immunosuppression increased the upregulation. Contrarily, treatment caused significant downregulation. GIII recorded significant upregulation 3-days PI, yet, treatment significantly decreased this expression. CONCLUSION: Serum mmu-miR-511-5p is a sensitive biomarker for early diagnosis of ME49 and RH infection (as early as one-week and 3-days, respectively), and its expression varies according to T. gondii infective dose, duration of infection, spiramycin-treatment and host immune status.

Potential Anti-Toxoplasmosis Efficiency of Phoenix dactylifera Extracts Loaded on Selenium Nanoparticles.

Background: Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii that infects humans and many types of mammals and birds. Objective: To investigate the effect of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) and Phoenix dactylifera (Pd) extracts loaded on SeNPs as a new agent to combat chronic T. gondii infections in murine model as an alternative method to standard Spiramycin drug therapy. Methods: A total of 64 female mice were randomly divided into eight groups: GI: Normal control, GII: Positive control, GIII: infected and treated with Spiramycin, GIV: infected and treated with SeNPs, GV: infected and treated with aqueous extract of Pd, GVI: infected and treated with methanolic extract of Pd, GVII: infected and treated with aqueous extract of Pd loaded on SeNPs, GVIII: infected and treated with methanolic extract of Pd loaded on SeNPs. Date palm (P. dactylifera) fruits were identified and collected from the farms of Saudi Arabia. Preparation and characterization of SeNPs were done. The parasitological, histopathological examinations and biochemical changes were evaluated in all groups. Results: Parasitological results showed significant differences in GVII in comparison to GII while GVIII showed significant differences in comparison to GII and GIII. The histopathological section of the cerebral cortex showed obvious alterations in the infected compared with untreated control groups. Aqueous and methanolic extracts of P. dactylifera loaded on SeNPs treatment showed improvement that indicated by few perivascular cuffing with few inflammatory cell infiltrations. Few granule cells with mild intracellular vacuolation and edema few deformed neurons with deep pyknotic nuclei. Microglia cells expression of Iba-1 and inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10 and INF-γ) in serum of all groups was higher in GII and lowest in GVIII followed by GVII. Conclusion: SeNPs and P. dactylifera extracts loaded on SeNPs could be a potent agent to combat T. gondii infections.

Effects of carrimycin on biomarkers of inflammation and immune function in tumor patients with sepsis: A multicenter double-blind randomized controlled trial.

Carrimycin is a potential immune-regulating agent for sepsis in patients with tumors. In this study, we investigated its effects on inflammation and immune function in tumor patients with sepsis. In total, 120 participants were randomized to receive either carrimycin treatment (400 mg/day) (n = 62) or placebo (n = 58) for 7 days. The primary outcomes were immune-related indicators. Subsequently, patients were stratified into two subgroups (CD4 < 38.25% and CD8 < 25.195%). Ninety-nine participants were analyzed: 47 and 52 in the carrimycin and placebo groups, respectively. HLA-DR levels were rapidly increased in the carrimycin group; however, the placebo group initially experienced a decline in HLA-DR level at 1 day after administration. In the subgroup with CD4 < 38.25%, the carrimycin group exhibited significantly higher HLA-DR levels than the placebo group (2.270, P = 0.023) 1 day after administration and the degree of increase in HLA-DR in the carrimycin group was higher than that in the placebo group (2.057, P = 0.040). In the CD8 < 25.195% subgroup, the carrimycin group demonstrated significantly higher levels of CD8+ T cells than the placebo group at 3 (2.300,P = 0.027) and 5 (2.106, P = 0.035) days after administration. Carrimycin intervention led to significant reductions in the SOFA, APACHE II, PCT, and CRP levels. No adverse events were observed. In tumor patients with sepsis, particularly in those experiencing immunological suppression, carrimycin effectively regulates immune responses by increasing HLA-DR and CD8+ T cell levels and plays an anti-infective role, reducing disease severity. (Chictr.org.cn, ID Number: ChiCTR2000032339).

A multimodality therapeutic application on Toxoplasma gondii encephalitis utilizing Spiramycin and 'de novo' Ferula asafetida in immunodeficient mice.

This study investigated a 'de Novo' medicinal herb, Ferula asafetida (FA), against toxoplasma encephalitis either alone or combined with spiramycin (SP). Female Swiss-Webster mice (n = 72) were divided into three batches. Batch-I received no DMS to serve as an immunocompetent control, batch-II was immune-suppressed with the DMS (0.25 mg/g/day) for 14 days pre-infection, whilst batch-III was immune-suppressed with the DMS on the same day of infection. All experimental mice were inoculated with Toxoplasma gondii ME49 cysts (n = 75). Each batch was split into four subgroups: Mono-SP, mono-FA, combined drug (SP + FA), or neither. Therapies were administered on day zero of infection in batches (I and II) and 35 days post-infection in batch (III). Treatments lasted for 14 days, and mice were sacrificed 60 days post-infection. Histopathological changes, cysts load, and CD4 and CD8 T-cells were counted in brain tissues. The cyst-load count in mice receiving SP + FA was significantly (p < .0001) the least compared to the mono treatments in all protocols. Interestingly, the combined therapy demolished the T-cell subsets to zero in immunocompetent and immunocompromised infected mice. In conclusion, F. asafetida might be a powerfully natural, safe vehicle of SP in the digestive system and/or across the brain-blood barrier to control toxoplasmosis even through immunodeficient conditions.

Novel experimental design paradigm for development of eco-friendly gradient chromatographic method for simultaneous determination of metronidazole and spiramycin.

This work describes the innovative experimental design-assisted development of a green gradient chromatographic method for concomitant analysis of metronidazole (MTR) and spiramycin (SPR). Two different designs including fractional factorial and Box-Behnken designs were implemented for screening and optimization steps, respectively. The optimum chromatographic conditions involved a mobile phase consisting of ethanol and 20 mM sodium dihydrogen phosphate solution (pH adjusted to 2.5) in the ratio 2:98 (v/v) for 2 min then the ratio changed to 30:70 (v/v). The flow rate was 1.3 mL/minute. Separation and analysis were performed on X-bridge C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm × 3.5 µm) column with diode array detector set at 230 nm. Column oven temperature was 40°C. A linear response was acquired over the range of 5-125 µg/mL for both drugs. Detection and quantitation limits were 0.86 and 2.62 µg/mL for MTR and 0.92 and 2.83 µg/mL for SPR, respectively. The method was implemented for determination of both drugs in three tablet formulations. The method was proved to be green as evaluated by three assessment tools. The application of experimental designs assists in development of a robust green chromatographic method in gradient elution mode for determination of both drugs within reasonable time.

Effects of Lactobacilli acidophilus and/or spiramycin as an adjunct in toxoplasmosis infection challenged with diabetes.

The current study assessed the anti-parasitic impact of probiotics on Toxoplasma gondii infection either solely or challenged with diabetes in Swiss albino mice. The study design encompassed group-A (diabetic), group-B (non-diabetic), and healthy controls (C). Each group was divided into infected-untreated (subgroup-1); infected and spiramycin-treated (subgroup-2); infected and probiotic-treated (subgroup-3); infected and spiramycin+ probiotic-treated (subgroup-4). Diabetic-untreated animals exhibited acute toxoplasmosis and higher cerebral parasite load. Overall, various treatments reduced intestinal pathology, improved body weight, and decreased mortalities; nevertheless, probiotic + spiramycin exhibited significant differences. On day 7 post-infection both PD-1 and IL-17A demonstrated higher scores in the intestine of diabetic-untreated mice compared with non-diabetics and healthy control; whereas, claudin-1 revealed worsening expression. Likewise, on day 104 post-infection cerebral PD-1 and IL-17A showed increased expressions in diabetic animals. Overall, treatment modalities revealed lower scores of PD-1 and IL-17A in non-diabetic subgroups compared with diabetics. Intestinal and cerebral expressions of IL-17A and PD-1 demonstrated positive correlations with cerebral parasite load. In conclusion, toxoplasmosis when challenged with diabetes showed massive pathological features and higher parasite load in the cerebral tissues. Probiotics are a promising adjunct to spiramycin by ameliorating IL-17A and PD-1 in the intestinal and cerebral tissues, improving the intestinal expression of claudin-1, and efficiently reducing the cerebral parasite load.

Nanoemulsion of Spiramycin against Tachyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii, RH Strain: Preparation, Toxicology, and Efficacy Studies.

Background: Toxoplasma infection is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, which is an intracellular protozoan parasite. This infection consequently lead various congenital disabilities during pregnancy in patients. Spiramycin (Spi), a macrolide antibiotic, is typically recommended for T. gondii infection in pregnant women. We aimed to prepare the nanoemulsion of spiramycin (NE-Spi) and to evaluate the activity of this formulation in tachyzoites of T. gondii, RH strain. Methods: This study was conducted in 2019-2021 at the School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. NE-Spi was prepared by spontaneous emulsification. The effects of this nanoemulsion on the viability of cultured cells were measured using MTT assay. To estimate the effects of NE-Spi on tachyzoites of T. gondii, RH strain, different concentrations of NE-Spi, S-Spi (suspension of spiramycin), and NE (nanoemulsion without any spiramycin) were added to tachyzoites and then stored for 30, 60, 90, 120 min and 24 h in 250 µg/ml concentration at room temperature. Finally, Tachyzoites mortality rates were evaluated by trypan blue staining. Of note, flow cytometry was conducted to confirm the obtained results. Results: The final particle size of NE-Spi was calculated to be 11.3 nm by DLS and TEM. Thereafter, using MTT assay, in 62.5 µg/ml concentration of NE-Spi, the Vero cells viability was obtained as 82%. The highest mortality rates of tachyzoites of T.gondii, RH strain were observed at 250 µg/ml concentration and after 120 min of exposure, but it was not significantly different from 24 h of exposure. Conclusion: NE-Spi has lethal efficacy on T. gondii RH strain in-vitro.

Application of honeybee venom loaded nanoparticles for the treatment of chronic toxoplasmosis: parasitological, histopathological, and immunohistochemical studies.

Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic intracellular protozoon which may cause severe disease in the immunocompromised patients. Unfortunately, the majority of treatments on the market work against tachyzoites in the acute infection but can't affect tissue cysts in the chronic phase. So, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of bee venom (BV) loaded metal organic frameworks (MOFs) nanoparticles (NPs) for the treatment of chronic murine toxoplasmosis. Ninety laboratory Swiss Albino mice were divided into 9 groups (10 mice each); GI (negative control), GII (infected control), GIII-GXI (infected with Me49 strain of Toxoplasma and treated); GIII (MOFs-NPs), GIV and GV (BV alone and loaded on MOFs-NPs), GVI and GVII (spiramycin alone and loaded on MOFs-NPs), GVIII and GIX (ciprofloxacin alone and loaded on MOFs-NPs). Parasitological examination of brain cyst count, histopathological study of brain, retina, liver, and kidney tissue sections and immunohistochemical (IHC) evaluation of liver was performed. Counting of Toxoplasma brain cysts showed high statistically significant difference between the infected treated groups and GII. GV showed the least count of brain cysts; mean ± SD (281 ± 29.5). Histopathological examination revealed a marked ameliorative effect of BV administration when used alone or loaded MOFs-NPs. It significantly reduced tissue inflammation, degeneration, and fibrosis. IHC examination of liver sections revealed high density CD8+ infiltration in GII, low density CD8+ infiltration in GIII, GVI, GVII, GVIII, and GIX while GIV and GV showed intermediate density CD8+ infiltration. BV is a promising Apitherapy against chronic toxoplasmosis. This effect is markedly enhanced by MOFs-NPs.

Comparison of adverse reactions of spiramycin versus pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine treatment of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: is spiramycin really the drug of choice for unproven infection of the fetus?

BACKGROUND: Therapeutic regimens for the treatment of toxoplasmosis are not standardized. Treatment strategy mainly at the end of the second and the beginning of the third trimester, especially in cases of negative prenatal diagnosis, is the least uniform. In some situations, the choice of treatment may be ambiguous, and adverse drug reactions of the therapy should be taken into consideration. METHODS: Adverse drug reactions of anti-toxoplasma therapy with spiramycin (n = 77) versus pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine (n = 35) were compared in 112 pregnant women. RESULTS: Up to 36.6% of women reported adverse reactions to the treatment overall (n = 41). Out of those 38.9% (n = 30) were treated with spiramycin and 31.4% (n = 11) with pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine. Toxic allergic reactions were the only indication for discontinuation of treatment in 8.9% of patients (n = 10), where 9.1% (n = 7) were reported in spiramycin and 8.6% (n = 3) in pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine cohort. Neurotoxic complications (acral paraesthesia) were significantly more frequent during the therapy with spiramycine in 19.5% (n = 15) compared to no cases in pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine group (p = .003). Other adverse drug reactions, such as gastrointestinal discomfort, nephrotoxicity, vaginal discomfort were reported, but the differences between the cohorts were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: The superiority of one of the therapeutic regimens was not statistically demonstrated, since the differences in overall toxicity or incidence of toxic allergic reactions between the cohorts were not confirmed (p = .53 and p = 1.00, respectively). However, although the isolated neurotoxicity of spiramycin was the only significant adverse reaction demonstrated in this study, pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine therapy should be preferred, because it is known to be more effective and with limited adverse reactions.

Spiramycin Disarms Pseudomonas aeruginosa without Inhibiting Growth.

Spiramycin is a 16-membered macrolide antibiotic currently used in therapy to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria responsible for respiratory tract infections, and it is also effective against some Gram-negative bacteria and against Toxoplasma spp. In contrast, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is one of the pathogens of most concern globally, is intrinsically resistant to spiramycin. In this study we show that spiramycin inhibits the expression of virulence determinants in P. aeruginosa in the absence of any significant effect on bacterial multiplication. In vitro experiments demonstrated that production of pyoverdine and pyocyanin by an environmental strain of P. aeruginosa was markedly reduced in the presence of spiramycin, as were biofilm formation, swarming motility, and rhamnolipid production. Moreover, treatment of P. aeruginosa with spiramycin sensitized the bacterium to H2O2 exposure. The ability of spiramycin to dampen the virulence of the P. aeruginosa strain was confirmed in a Galleria mellonella animal model. The results demonstrated that when G. mellonella larvae were infected with P. aeruginosa, the mortality after 24 h was >90%. In contrast, when the spiramycin was injected together with the bacterium, the mortality dropped to about 50%. Furthermore, marked reduction in transcript levels of the antimicrobial peptides gallerimycin, gloverin and moricin, and lysozyme was found in G. mellonella larvae infected with P. aeruginosa and treated with spiramycin, compared to the larvae infected without spiramycin treatment suggesting an immunomodulatory activity of spiramycin. These results lay the foundation for clinical studies to investigate the possibility of using the spiramycin as an anti-virulence and anti-inflammatory drug for a more effective treatment of P. aeruginosa infections, in combination with other antibiotics.

Novel insights on the therapeutic effect of levamisole on the chronic toxoplasmosis in mice model.

Latent toxoplasmosis mostly reactivates which could result in acute encephalitis. Chronic toxoplasmosis treatments are severely constrained by Toxoplasma cyst resistance. Novel therapeutic approaches are therefore becoming more essential. In this study, the effects of levamisole (LEVA) and spiramycin on the early and late stages of experimental toxoplasmosis are investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seventy-five Me49 Toxoplasma gondii infected Swiss albino mice were divided into five groups; (GI): noninfected control group; (GII): infected untreated control group; (GIII): infected- LEVA treated group; (GIV): infected and received combination of spiramycin and LEVA and (GV): infected-spiramycin treated group. The impact was assessed through brain cyst count by Quantitative Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), interferon gamma (IFN-γ) assay, histopathological study, and total blood counts. RESULTS: The progression of chronic toxoplasmosis could only be partially controlled by using either levamisole or spiramycin as a separate drug. The combined spiramycin and levamisole treatment significantly decreased the burden of Toxoplasma brain cyst, increased IFN-γ level, total blood parameters and improved the histopathological features especially at the late stage of infection. IN CONCLUSION: Levamisole effectively modulated Toxoplasma-induced immune responses, resulting in chronic toxoplasmosis remission. Further clinical trials will be needed to study the effect of these combination in HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus) patients with toxoplasmosis.

The effect of Nigella sativa oil- and wheat germ oil-loaded metal organic frameworks on chronic murine toxoplasmosis.

Treatment of chronic toxoplasmosis is challenging as the available drugs are effective only in the acute stage. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate Nigella sativa oil (NSO) and wheat germ oil (WGO) loaded on copper-benzene tricarboxylic acid metal organic framework (Cu-BTC MOF) for treating chronic toxoplasmosis in a murine model. Eighty mice were divided into 8 groups (G); uninfected untreated negative control (GI), infected untreated positive control (GII), infected and treated with: Spiramycin (GIII), Spiramycin@Cu-BTC (GIV), Cu-BTC (GV), WGO@Cu-BTC (GVI), NSO@Cu-BTC (GVII) and combined WGO+NSO@Cu-BTC (GVIII). The infected groups were orally inoculated with 10 Toxoplasma gondii Me49 strain cysts/mouse. All drugs were orally administered for 14 consecutive days starting 8 weeks post-infection (wpi). The therapeutic efficacy was evaluated by parasitological (survival rate of mice and brain cyst burden) and histopathological (brain, liver, kidney, eye) parameters. At the end of 2-weeks therapy, the highest therapeutic outcome was achieved with GVII and GVIII exhibiting 100% survival, 64.3% and 51.4% reduction of brain cysts, and an apparent amendment of pathological insults. In the next place was GVI with 90% survival, 49.5% reduction of cysts and marked amelioration of pathological lesions. Meanwhile, GIII and GIV showed 80% survival, 42.4% and 41.8% reduction of cysts as well as minimal to moderate alleviation of tissue damage. The lowest effect was obtained with GV resulting in 70% survival and 24.4% reduction of cysts. The current results support the assertion that the new metal-based nanocomposites can be promising remedies of chronic toxoplasmosis particularly if conjugated with natural herbal extracts as NSO and WGO.

Toxoplasmosis: A Timeless Challenge for Pregnancy.

This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women, as well as the general characteristics, clinical and laboratory findings, and pregnancy and fetal outcomes of pregnant women diagnosed with acute toxoplasma infection (ATI). The toxoplasma IgM, IgG, and IgG avidity test results of pregnant women who applied to our referral hospital between January 2016 and June 2022, and among them, those diagnosed with ATI, were analyzed. The 119 patients diagnosed with ATI during this time period were included for further analysis. The prevalence of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women was found to be 46.2%, and the rate of ATI was 4%. The total mother-to-child transmission rate was 5% (5/101). Congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) was observed in 1 (1.1%) child of the 87 pregnant women who received spiramycin prophylaxis, though it was found in 4 (30.8%) of the children of the 13 untreated mothers. With respect to prenatal treatment, CT rates were significantly higher in the children born to untreated mothers (p = 0.001). In conclusion, although toxoplasma seroprevalence was found to be high in our region, there was a paucity in diagnosis, follow-up, and treatment. Our findings support that prenatal spiramycin prophylaxis is effective in preventing the transmission of parasites from mother to child.

Influence of thermally activated peroxodisulfate pretreatment on gaseous emission, dissolved organic matter and maturity evolution during spiramycin fermentation residue composting.

Aerobic composting combined with appropriate pretreatment is promising to achieve the utilization of antibiotics fermentation residues (AFRs). This research studied the effect of thermally activated peroxodisulfate (TAP) pretreatment on greenhouse gas (GHGs) emission, dissolved organic matter (DOM) and maturity evaluation during spiramycin fermentation residue (SFR) composting. Three treatments were conducted from co-composting of SFR and wheat straw, while 90% and 99.9% residual spirmycin removal pretreatment SFR by TAP were provided and compared with raw SFR. The cumulative CO2 and NH3 emissions increased by 17.2% and 30.8% after TAP pretreatment removed 99.9% residual spiramycin in SFR, while the cumulative CH4 and N2O emission decreased by 34.0% and 5.27%, respectively. The DOM, humic acid (HA)/fulvic acid (FA) and NH4+/NO3- analysis confirmed that the composting maturity was improved with the increasing of HA and NO3- content by TAP pretreatment.

A Neglected Challenge in the Analysis of Active Pharmaceutical Substances with Aldehyde Functional Group in Aqueous Matrices.

Aldehydes are compounds that are widely used and popular in organic synthesis due to their high reactivity. This advantage is a disadvantage in medicinal chemistry. Due to the ability of aldehydes to participate in nucleophilic reactions (especially in aqueous biological media) and access to nucleophiles such as amino acids and nucleic acids, drugs with aldehyde functional groups are always used with caution and carefully quantified in biological fluids. Our experience in working on biologically active aldehydes indicates the transformation of these groups of compounds in aqueous or alcoholic solution and thus the failure of analytical methods for their accurate monitoring in such media. Both mass spectrometry and Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic findings indicate the reaction of spiramycin with water molecules in an aqueous solution, resulting in the conversion of spiramycin to a new molecule with 18 mass unit difference and thus, the residue amount which is measured and reported based on a mass spectrometries method does not show the correct amount of spiramycin in these samples.

16-membered ring macrolides and erythromycin induce ermB expression by different mechanisms.

BACKGROUND: Ribosome stalling on ermBL at the tenth codon (Asp) and mRNA stabilization are believed to be mechanisms by which erythromycin (Ery) induces ermB expression. Expression of ermB is also induced by 16-membered ring macrolides (tylosin, josamycin and spiramycin), but the mechanism underlying this induction is unknown. METHODS: We introduced premature termination codons, alanine-scanning mutagenesis and amino acid mutations in ermBL and ermBL2. RESULTS: In this paper, we demonstrated that 16-membered ring macrolides can induce ermB expression but not ermC expression. The truncated mutants of the ermB-coding sequence indicate that the regulatory regions of ermB whose expression is induced by Ery and 16-membered ring macrolides are different. We proved that translation of the N-terminal region of ermBL is key for the induction of ermB expression by Ery, spiramycin (Spi) and tylosin (Tyl). We also demonstrated that ermBL2 is critical for the induction of ermB expression by erythromycin but not by 16-membered ring macrolides. CONCLUSIONS: The translation of ermBL and the RNA sequence of the C-terminus of ermBL are critical for the induction of ermB expression by Spi and Tyl.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Spiramycin in LPS-Activated RAW 264.7 Macrophages.

Drug repurposing is a simple concept with a long history, and is a paradigm shift that can significantly reduce the costs and accelerate the process of bringing a new small-molecule drug into clinical practice. We attempted to uncover a new application of spiramycin, an old medication that was classically prescribed for toxoplasmosis and various other soft-tissue infections; specifically, we initiated a study on the anti-inflammatory capacity of spiramycin. For this purpose, we used murine macrophage RAW 264.7 as a model for this experiment and investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of spiramycin by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines. In the present study, we demonstrated that spiramycin significantly decreased nitric oxide (NO), interleukin (IL)-1ß, and IL-6 levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Spiramycin also inhibited the expression of NO synthase (iNOS), potentially explaining the spiramycin-induced decrease in NO production. In addition, spiramycin inhibited the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs); extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) as well as the inactivation and subsequent nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). This indicated that spiramycin attenuates macrophages' secretion of IL-6, IL-1ß, and NO, inducing iNOS expression via the inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Finally, we tested the potential application of spiramycin as a topical material by human skin primary irritation tests. It was performed on the normal skin (upper back) of 31 volunteers to determine whether 100 µM and µM of spiramycin had irritation or sensitization potential. In these assays, spiramycin did not induce any adverse reactions. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that spiramycin can effectively attenuate the activation of macrophages, suggesting that spiramycin could be a potential candidate for drug repositioning as a topical anti-inflammatory agent.

Direct and indirect antiparasitic effects of chloroquine against the virulent RH strain of Toxoplasma gondii: An experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasmosis is a deleterious parasitic disease with harmful impact on both humans and animals. The present study was carried out to evaluate the antiparasitic effect of chloroquine (CQ), spiramycin (SP), and combination of both against the highly virulent RH HXGPRT (-) strain of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) and to explore the mechanisms underlying such effect. METHODS: We counted the tachyzoites in the peritoneal fluid and liver smears of mice and performed scanning and transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescence staining of tachyzoites. Moreover, relative caspase 3 gene expression was measured by real time polymerase chain reaction of liver tissues and immunoassay of anti-apoptotic markers [B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and X-chromosome linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP)] and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) was done in liver tissues by ELISA. In addition, we estimated serum levels of aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) and performed histopathological examination of liver sections for scoring of inflammation. RESULTS: We found that both CQ and CQ/SP combination significantly reduced parasitic load in the peritoneal fluid and liver smears, induced apical disruption of tachyzoites, triggered host cell apoptosis through elevation of relative caspase 3 gene expression and suppression of both Bcl-2 and XIAP. Also, they upregulated IFN-γ level, reduced serum AST and ALT, and ameliorated liver inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Either of CQ and CQ/SP combination was more effective than SP alone against T. gondii with the CQ/SP combination being more efficient. Therefore, adding CQ to other anti-Toxoplasma therapeutic regimens may be considered in future research.