Speeding behavior among teenage drivers during the learner and early independent driving stage: A case study approach.

INTRODUCTION: Speed is a primary contributing factor in teenage driver crashes. Yet, there are significant methodological challenges in measuring real-world speeding behavior. METHOD: This case study approach analyzed naturalistic driving data for six teenage drivers in a longitudinal study that spanned the learner and early independent driving stages of licensure in Maryland, United States. Trip duration, travel speed and length were recorded using global position system (GPS) data. These were merged with maps of the Maryland road system, which included posted speed limit (PSL) to determine speeding events in each recorded trip. Speeding was defined as driving at the speed of 10 mph higher than the posted speed limit and lasting longer than 6 s. Using these data, two different speeding measures were developed: (1) Trips with Speeding Episodes, and (2) Verified Speeding Time. Conclusions & Practical Applications: Across both measures, speeding behavior during independent licensure was greater than during the learner period. These measures improved on previous methodologies by using PSL information and eliminating the need for mapping software. This approach can be scaled for use in larger samples and has the potential to advance understanding about the trajectory of speeding behaviors among novice teenage drivers.

Can a Smartphone Application Be Used to Measure Practice Driving Behavior During the Learner Permit Period? A Step Toward Performance-Based Licensing.

Introduction: Supervised practice during the learner stage of graduated driver licensing is required in all U.S. states and some international jurisdictions. Several U.S. states require driving hours to be recorded in a paper logbook, making it susceptible to errors or falsification. A smartphone app that operates as an electronic logbook could serve as an alternative. The purpose of this study was to measure the impact of the logbook format (i.e., paper versus electronic) on self-reported driving behavior. Design: Parent‒teen dyads were enrolled and assigned to electronic (n=147) and paper (n=131) logbook groups using a block design. Setting/Participants: This study was conducted in Maryland. Data were collected for 6 continuous months while teenagers held a learner permit between January 2020 and December 2021. Intervention: Electronic logbook to measure practice driving. Outcome measure: Self-reported driving between the electronic and paper logbook groups. For those using electronic logbooks, an agreement between self-reported trips and electronic logbook trips and perceptions of using an electronic logbook to measure driving. Results: There were no statistically significant differences in any measures of self-reported practice driving by logbook type (electronic versus paper). Agreement between self-reported and electronic logbook‒recorded trips ranged between 68.6% and 79.0% (allowing a difference of 2 trips per week). User satisfaction with the electronic logbook was high, with 93.0% of teenagers and 91.9% of parents stating that they would recommend the app to a friend. Conclusions: An electronic logbook is a viable approach to measuring practice driving. Eventually, it could become part of a system where practice requirements are verified, allowing states to move toward performance-based graduated driver licensing.

Design and evaluation of a rural intersection conflict warning system and alternative designs among various driver age groups.

Advanced Rural Intersection Conflict Warning Systems (RICWS) were deployed as countermeasures to reduce severe right-angle crashes at rural thru-STOP controlled intersections across the United States (U.S.). The simulator study designed and evaluated alternative RICWS designs to existing RICWS interventions, in varying rural driving scenarios, across age groups (N = 40 novice teenage, 40 middle-aged, and 40 older drivers). Each participant was randomly assigned to a RICWS design, either the original or an alternative, and drove through sequences of 17 thru-STOP controlled rural intersections (nine RICWS intervention and eight control intersections). Drivers' gap acceptance performance, intersection driving performance, traffic violation behaviors and self-reported workload were evaluated between intervention and control intersections. Regression models, applying the Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE), enabled efficacy determination of each RICWS design and an aggregated RICWS intervention effect, averaged across all simulated RICWS designs, among different levels of moderating factors. The safety performance and possible risks associated with the use of different RICWS designs were identified. Specifically, the original RICWS design had a significantly greater risk of STOP-sign violations at clear-view intersections with low traffic volumes, compared with control intersections (Risk Ratio = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.03 to 4.64). Except for Alternative RICWS Design 1, the alternative RICWS designs did not appear to outperform the Original RICWS Design. The moderating effects of drivers' ages and intersection types on aggregated RICWS intervention effects were also examined. This study provides important safety implications for development and evaluation of intelligent intersection warning systems, targeted to vulnerable driver populations at high-risk rural intersections.

Driver education: how effective?

In the early 20th century, the numbers of motor vehicles in use grew rapidly in the USA, Canada, and many European countries. By the 1930s, the number of automobile crashes and the resulting deaths and injuries was a significant problem and various safety organizations tried to address it with education and publicity programs aimed at changing driver behaviour. It is not clear when the high crash risks of young drivers were first identified, but in the early 1930s driver education courses began to be offered in US high schools (feasible because US licensing ages were 16 or younger) and soon such courses were being touted (with no evidence) as 'the most obvious way' to reduce traffic crashes. Over the years many claims were made for the effectiveness of high school driver education, however, it was not until the late 1960s that competent research studies (including randomized control trials) were undertaken. The consistent findings from these studies have been that high school driver education does not reduce crashes. Furthermore, the trained students get their licenses sooner, and because teenagers have very high crash risks, the net result of high school driver education is increased numbers of crashes.

Dirigir moto ou carro entre adolescentes: inquérito "saúde em Vespasiano", 2015 / Adolescents driving motorcycles or cars: inquiry "health in Vespasiano", 2015

INTRODUÇÃO: Inquérito de base populacional realizado em Vespasiano, Minas Gerais, em 2015/2016. Adolescentes e não habilitados para uso de veículos motorizados, representam maior risco para acidentes no trânsito. OBJETIVOS: Analisar o relato de frequência de dirigir moto e carro alguma vez na vida por adolescentes, bem como fatores associados a esse evento. MÉTODOS: Participaram 424 adolescentes com idades entre 11 e 17 anos, selecionados em amostra aleatória. Foram calculadas as frequências do relato de dirigir moto e carro alguma vez na vida associadas às variáveis explicativas bem como odds ratio, e seu intervalo de confiança a 95% Para análise, foi utilizado o software SPSS, versão 19.0. RESULTADOS: 26,4% dos adolescentes relataram ter dirigido moto e 23,6% ter dirigido carro alguma vez na vida. Na faixa etária de 14 a 17 anos observou-se frequência maior de relato de ter dirigido moto (78,6%) e carro (81,0%) comparados à faixa de 11 a 13 anos (21,4% e 19,0% respectivamente. Adolescentes que ingeriram bebida alcoólica alguma vez na vida apresentaram 2,9 vezes mais chance de relatar ter dirigido moto (IC 95% 1,8 - 4,6) e 2,7 vezes mais chance de relatar ter dirigido carro alguma vez na vida (IC 95% 1,7 - 4,3). 13,9% dos adolescentes relataram ter sofrido acidente de trânsito durante a vida, como motorista, passageiro ou pedestre. CONCLUSÕES: Em Vespasiano, 26,4% dos adolescentes estudados relataram ter dirigido moto e 23,6% carro, o que reforça a necessidade de maior reflexão quanto a estratégias preventivas à ocorrência da transgressão da lei de trânsito pelos adolescentes.(AU)

Introduction: Population based survey conducted in Vespasiano City, Minas Gerais State, Brasil, em 2015/2016. Young unlicensed drivers are more likely to adopt several inappropriate behaviors while driving. Objectives: determine and quantify the association between driving motorcycle and car sometime in life and selected explanatory variables. Methods: 424 teenagers aged 11-17 years were selected in a household random sample of census tracts. The frequency driving a motorcycle and/or car was calculated. Associations were quantified through the odds ratio and its 95% confidence interval. For the analysis we used the software SPSS, 19.0 version. Results: 26.4% of adolescents reported driving motorcycle and 23.6% have driven car sometime in life. The age group 14-17 years reported the a higher frequency of driving motorcycle (78.6%) and car (81%) compared to the age group 11 to 13 years (21.4% and 19%, respectively). Teens who used alcohol in their lifetime were 2.9 (CI 95% 1.8 ­ 4.6) times more likely to ride motorcycle and 2.7 (CI 95% 1.7 ­ 4.3) times more likely to drive a car; 13.9% of adolescents reported having suffered a traffic accident during life as a driver, passanger or pedestrian. Conclusions: In Vespasiano, 26.4% of adolescents reported having driven motorcycle and 23.6% have driven car. This result may contribute to discussion and preventive strategies for health and safety actions related to the occurrence of the violation of the traffic law by adolescents.(AU)

Teen drivers' awareness of vehicle instrumentation in naturalistic research.

INTRODUCTION: Naturalistic driving methods require the installation of instruments and cameras in vehicles to record driving behavior. A critical, yet unexamined issue in naturalistic driving research is the extent to which the vehicle instruments and cameras used for naturalistic methods change human behavior. We sought to describe the degree to which teenage participants' self-reported awareness of vehicle instrumentation changes over time, and whether that awareness was associated with driving behaviors. METHOD: Forty-two newly-licensed teenage drivers participated in an 18-month naturalistic driving study. Data on driving behaviors including crash/near-crashes and elevated gravitational force (g-force) events rates were collected over the study period. At the end of the study, participants were asked to rate the extent to which they were aware of instruments in the vehicle at four time points. They were also asked to describe their own and their passengers' perceptions of the instrumentation in the vehicle during an in-depth interview. The number of critical event button presses was used as a secondary measure of camera awareness. The association between self-reported awareness of the instrumentation and objectively measured driving behaviors was tested using correlations and linear mixed models. RESULTS: Most participants' reported that their awareness of vehicle instrumentation declined across the duration of the 18-month study. Their awareness increased in response to their passengers' concerns about the cameras or if they were involved in a crash. The number of the critical event button presses was initially high and declined rapidly. There was no correlation between driver's awareness of instrumentation and their crash and near-crash rate or elevated g-force events rate. CONCLUSION: Awareness was not associated with crash and near-crash rates or elevated g-force event rates, consistent with having no effect on this measure of driving performance. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Naturalistic driving studies are likely to yield valid measurements of driving behavior.

Factors Influencing Learner Permit Duration.

An increasing number of countries are requiring an extended learner permit prior to independent driving. The question of when drivers begin the learner permit period, and how long they hold the permit before advancing to independent licensure has received little research attention. Licensure timing is likely to be related to "push" and "pull" factors which may encourage or inhibit the process. To examine this question, we recruited a sample of 90 novice drivers (49 females and 41 males, average age of 15.6 years) soon after they obtained a learner permit and instrumented their vehicles to collect a range of driving data. Participants completed a series of surveys at recruitment related to factors that may influence licensure timing. Two distinct findings emerged from the time-to-event analysis that tested these push and pull factors in relation to licensure timing. The first can be conceptualized as teens' motivation to drive (push), reflected in a younger age when obtaining a learner permit and extensive pre-permit driving experience. The second finding was teens' perceptions of their parents' knowledge of their activities (pull); a proxy for a parents' attentiveness to their teens' lives. Teens who reported higher levels of their parents' knowledge of their activities took longer to advance to independent driving. These findings suggest time-to-licensure may be related to teens' internal motivation to drive, and the ability of parents to facilitate or impede early licensure.

Effects of an integrated collision warning system on teenage driver behavior.

INTRODUCTION: Crash warning systems have been shown to provide safety benefits, but no studies have examined how teenagers respond. This study sought to find out whether young, inexperienced drivers change behavior in response to warnings. METHODS: Forty 16-17 year-olds drove an instrumented vehicle equipped with a system that warned for lane departures and potential rear-end and lane change/merge crashes. Participants were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups, and their driving was monitored for 14weeks during 2011-12. For the experimental group, this included a treatment period, when crash alerts were received by drivers, and baseline and post-treatment periods, when warnings were recorded but not received. The control group never received warnings. Data were analyzed to determine whether warnings were associated with changes in driving behavior. RESULTS: A total of 15,039 trips were analyzed. Lane drifts accounted for 73% of warnings. Forward collision warning rates doubled for all drivers during the treatment period and continued at an increased rate post-treatment. This was likely a result of the fact that, as time went on, all drivers spent more time following vehicles at close distances. Receiving alerts was associated with effects on following and lane-changing behavior, including more time spent following at close distances (17%), fewer lateral drifts (37%) and fewer unsignaled lane changes (80%). Receiving warnings wasn't associated with an increased likelihood of engaging in secondary tasks. CONCLUSIONS: Warning systems may result in improved lane-keeping and turn-signal behaviors by novice drivers, but there is some indication they may result in more close-following behaviors. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: There is some evidence that lane departure warning may improve turn-signal use for young drivers. While there is no evidence of safety benefits from the other types of warnings, there is some evidence of an increase in close-following behavior but no increase in secondary tasks due to the presence of those capabilities.

History and current status of state graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws in the United States.

INTRODUCTION: The objective of this study is to describe changes in teenage driver licensing policies in the United States during the past two decades with the introduction of graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs, assess GDL laws currently in place, and discuss the possibilities and likely consequences of further changes. METHODS: The history of laws introducing and amending GDL programs was tracked, based on records maintained by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). Counts of states included the District of Columbia. RESULTS: A few states had elements of GDL prior to the mid-1990s, and between 1996 and 2006 all other states adopted a learner period of 2 months or more, a minimum supervised practice hours requirement for the learner period, or a night or passenger restriction once initially licensed. All but seven states have upgraded their original laws one or more times. Very few states weakened their laws, usually in minor ways. In 158 instances, minimum learner periods, minimum practice hour requirements, or night or passenger restrictions were added or strengthened. Fifteen states raised the minimum age for a license allowing any unsupervised driving. CONCLUSION: GDL policies have reduced teenage driver crashes. Most states now have at least minimum requirements for basic GDL features, although there is substantial opportunity for strengthening existing policies. Additional upgrades would result in further crash reductions, but very few have been made in recent years. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Guidelines for maximizing the crash reduction potential of GDL programs are available, based on the experience of U.S. states, other countries with GDL programs, and the evaluation literature in regard to GDL components.

Vehicle choices for teenage drivers: A national survey of U.S. parents.

INTRODUCTION: Previous research has shown that many newly licensed teenagers in the United States are driving vehicles with inferior crash protection. The objective of this study was to update and extend previous research on U.S. parents' choices of vehicles for their teenagers. METHOD: Telephone surveys were conducted with parents in May 2014 using a random sample of U.S. households likely to include teenagers. Participation was restricted to parents or guardians of teenagers who lived in the household and held either an intermediate or full driver's license. Parents were interviewed about the vehicle their teenager drives, the reason they chose the vehicle for their teenager, and the cost of purchased vehicles. RESULTS: Teenagers most often were driving 2000-06 model year vehicles (41%), with 30% driving a more recent model year and 19% driving an older model year. Teenagers most often were driving midsize or large cars (27%), followed by SUVs (22%), mini or small cars (20%), and pickups (14%). Far fewer were driving minivans (6%) or sports cars (1%). Forty-three percent of the vehicles driven by teenagers were purchased when the teenager started driving or later. A large majority (83%) were used vehicles. The median cost of the vehicles purchased was $5300, and the mean purchase price was $9751. CONCLUSIONS: Although parents report that the majority of teenagers are driving midsize or larger vehicles, many of these vehicles likely do not have key safety features, such as electronic stability control, which would be especially beneficial for teenage drivers. Many teenagers were driving older model year vehicles or vehicle types or sizes that are not ideal for novice drivers. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Parents, and their teenage drivers, may benefit from consumer information about optimal vehicle choices for teenagers.

Conscientious personality and young drivers' crash risk.

INTRODUCTION: Personality characteristics are associated with many risk behaviors. However, the relationship between personality traits, risky driving behavior, and crash risk is poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between personality, risky driving behavior, and crashes and near-crashes, using naturalistic driving research methods. METHOD: Participants' driving exposure, kinematic risky driving (KRD), high-risk secondary task engagement, and the frequency of crashes and near-crashes (CNC) were assessed over the first 18months of licensure using naturalistic driving methods. A personality survey (NEO-Five Factor Inventory) was administered at baseline. The association between personality characteristics, KRD rate, secondary task engagement rate, and CNC rate was estimated using a linear regression model. Mediation analysis was conducted to examine if participants' KRD rate or secondary task engagement rate mediated the relationship between personality and CNC. Data were collected as part of the Naturalistic Teen Driving Study. RESULTS: Conscientiousness was marginally negatively associated with CNC (path c=-0.034, p=.09) and both potential mediators KRD (path a=-0.040, p=.09) and secondary task engagement while driving (path a=-0.053, p=.03). KRD, but not secondary task engagement, was found to mediate (path b=0.376, p=.02) the relationship between conscientiousness and CNC (path c'=-0.025, p=.20). CONCLUSIONS: Using objective measures of driving behavior and a widely used personality construct, these findings present a causal pathway through which personality and risky driving are associated with CNC. Specifically, more conscientious teenage drivers engaged in fewer risky driving maneuvers, and suffered fewer CNC. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Part of the variability in crash risk observed among newly licensed teenage drivers can be explained by personality. Parents and driving instructors may take teenage drivers' personality into account when providing guidance, and establishing norms and expectations about driving.

Health care utilization and charges following the enactment of the 2007 Graduated Drivers Licensing Law in Massachusetts.

BACKGROUND: Graduated Drivers Licensing (GDL) programs phase in driving privileges for teenagers. In 2007, Massachusetts implemented a stricter version of the 1998 GDL law, with increased fines and education. This study evaluated the impact of the law on motor vehicle crash (MVC)-related health care utilization and charges. METHODS: Massachusetts government and US Census Bureau data were analyzed to compare the rates of MVC-related emergency department (ED) visits and hospital charges before (2002-2006) and after (2007-2011) the 2007 GDL law. Three driver age groups were studied: 16-17 (evaluating the law effect), 18-20 (evaluating the sustainability of the effect), and 25-29 years old (control group). RESULTS: MVC-related ED visits per population decreased after the law for all three age groups (16-17: 2326 to 713; 18-20: 2110 to 1304; 25-29: 1694 to 1228; per 100,000, p<0.001), but the decrease was greater amongst teenagers (16-17: -69%; 18-20: -38%) compared to the control group (-27%); p<0.001. MVC-related hospital charges per population also decreased for teenagers but increased for the control group (16-17: $2.70 m to $1.45 m; 18-20: $3.52 m to $2.26 m; 25-29: $1.86 m to $1.92 m; per 100,000, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The 2007 GDL law in Massachusetts was associated with significant decreases in MVC-related health care utilization and hospital charges among teenage drivers.

Tracking progress in teenage driver crash risk in the United States since the advent of graduated driver licensing programs.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined U.S. teenagers' crash rates since 1996, when the first graduated driver licensing (GDL) program in the United State was implemented. METHODS: Passenger vehicle driver crash involvement rates for 16-19 and 30-59 (middle-aged) year-olds were examined, using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, National Automotive Sampling System General Estimates System, Census Bureau, and National Household Travel Surveys. RESULTS: Per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2012 were lower for 16year-olds than for middle-aged drivers but older teenagers' rates were higher. Mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2008 were higher for teenagers than for middle-aged drivers and higher for 16-17year-olds than for older teenagers. In 1996-2012, teenagers' per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates declined sharply, especially for 16-17year-olds, and more so than for middle-aged drivers. Substantial declines also occurred in teenagers' mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates from 1995-96 to 2008, generally more so than for middle-aged drivers. Regarding factors in fatal crashes in 1996 and 2012, proportions of young teenagers' crashes occurring at night and with multiple teenage passengers declined, more so than among older teenagers and middle-aged drivers. The proportion of fatally injured drivers who had been drinking declined for teenagers but changed little for middle-aged drivers. Improvements were not apparent in rates of driver errors or speeding among teenage drivers in fatal crashes. CONCLUSIONS: Teenage drivers' crash risk dropped during the period of implementation of GDL laws, especially fatal crash types targeted by GDL. However, teenagers' crash risk remains high, and important crash factors remain unaddressed by GDL. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Although this study was not designed to examine the role of GDL, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws. More gains are achievable if states strengthen their laws.

Views of New Jersey teenagers about their state's policies for beginning drivers.

BACKGROUND: Three New Jersey licensing policies are unique in the United States: (a) minimum licensing age of 17; (b) applying full graduated driver licensing (GDL) rules to beginners younger than 21; and (c) requiring license status decals on vehicle plates of drivers in GDL. METHODS: New Jersey 17-19 year-olds were surveyed by telephone and online. RESULTS: Eighty-four percent approved licensing at 17; 77% approved applying GDL to older novices; 23% approved the decal policy. Probationary licensees ages 18-19 were more likely than 17 year-olds to have multiple nighttime restriction violations in the past month. There were no age group differences in passenger restriction violations. DISCUSSION: All three policies have been considered in other states. Views of teenagers directly affected by the policies can be taken into account in considering their implementation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Views of licensing policies by affected teenagers indicate potential support or obstacles to their adoption in other states.