Clinical Presentation, Bacteriologic Findings and Possible Risk Factors for Ischemic Teat Necrosis in Cattle-A Case Series.

Ischemic teat necrosis (ITN) is a growing problem in the dairy industry characterized by teat lesions, necrosis, pruritus and automutilation. Despite the economic and welfare consequences, there is no treatment, and the etiology of the disease remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate ITN by analyzing its clinical presentation, potential risk factors and microbial involvement. Methods included collection of milk and swab samples from affected cows over a period of one-and-a-half years and completion of questionnaires by veterinarians and farmers. Microbial testing included PCR testing for Treponema spp. and cultural testing by anaerobic and aerobic incubation on blood agar. The results showed a high and significant prevalence of Treponema spp. and Staphylococcus aureus in affected teats compared to non-ITN-affected control teats, indicating their potential role in the development of ITN. Other factors such as edema and milking practices also appear to contribute to the tissue damage. First-lactation and early-lactation heifers are particularly at risk. In conclusion, ITN appears to have a multifactorial etiology with both infectious and non-infectious factors playing a role. Further research is needed to better understand the complex interplay of these factors and to develop effective prevention and management strategies.

Study on Anatomical Structures of the Dromedary Udder.

The objectives of the present study were to describe specific anatomical structures of the dromedary udder. Eighty-six dromedary udders were examined, taking morphological measurements and producing injection casts using resin, gelatin, and paraffin. The udder of the dromedaries consists of four quarters. The shape of the udders and teats varies considerably between animals and is influenced by age, breeding, and lactation status. The most frequently found udder form was the globular udder (48.8%) and the most common teat form in this study was the funnel teat (44.2%). The most common teat tip shape was a smooth or a slightly rough ring teat (61.6%). Injection casts showed a complete separation of the teat canals. There is also no communication between tributary mammary complexes. Resin injections of the glandular tissue adjacent to the teat cistern showed an extensive branching into large, medium, and small milk ducts. Frozen sections of the udder revealed complete separation of the right and left mammary complex through the Sulcus intermammarius. The teat sections showed longitudinal folds from the tip of the teat to the base of the teat. A ring fold at the transition from the Ductus papillaris to the teat cistern was present. The results of this study increase the knowledge of the anatomical structures of the dromedary udder, which may be useful for breeding a selection of dairy dromedaries.

Exploring the impact of biosecurity measures on somatic cell score in mountain dairy farms considering the CLASSYFARM system.

Biosecurity plays a crucial role in preventing the introduction of infectious diseases to a herd as well as the spread of diseases within or between animals and herds. In particular, biosecurity measures are crucial for maintaining animal health and reducing the need for the application of antibiotic substances for fighting the rising antibiotic resistance. The object of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the presence of biosecurity measures and their association with milk quality parameters, with a special focus on somatic cell count (SCC) - an indicator for udder health -, in small-scale mountain dairy farms. Therefore, for the very first time, the CLASSYFARM system was considered, which is a computer platform integrated into the Italian national veterinary portal, that processes a significant amount of data from various sources collected in the field or from other information systems (e.g. animal welfare, health status, biosecurity, antimicrobial use, slaughterhouse information). A total of 169 dairy farms were included in the study. Biosecurity measures, based on 15 questions required in the CLASSYFARM welfare assessment protocol, as well as information about husbandry systems, milking systems and pasture practices were gathered and combined with milk yield data, provided by the South Tyrolean dairy association. Farms only scored 44.00 points on average in a scoring system from 0.00 to 100.00 points that was be able to summarize 15 different biosecurity measures in one index. Our results show a clear negative correlation (-0.713) between the biosecurity index and somatic cell score (SCS) indicating that a higher level of biosecurity, which reflects the presence of biosecurity measures within a farm, is associated with lower SCC levels. Furthermore, we found significant correlations between SCS and milk production (-0.629), confirming that udder health is linked to higher milk production. Fat, protein, and the fat-to-protein ratio showed a positive correlation with SCS (0.281, 0.146, 0.106), likely to be caused by a concentration shift effect (dilution effect). Husbandry system, breed, milking system, and pasture practices seem to have an impact as well, but the main factor was the biosecurity score. This study highlights the importance of implementing biosecurity measures for ensuring animal health and thus productivity and quality in milk production, even in small-scale farms, which are characterized by limited structure availability and smaller herds compared to big dairy enterprises in the lowlands.

Dairy farmer's income, working time, and antimicrobial use under different dry cow therapy protocols.

Mastitis is one of the most common diseases of dairy cattle. It has a high impact on farm economy, farmers' working time, and antimicrobial usage (AMU). Selective dry cow therapy (SDCT) is an effective means of reducing AMU without negatively affecting udder health. The objective of our study was to evaluate the impact of SDCT implementation on farmer's income, working time, and AMU, using a bioeconomic model. A stochastic dairy simulation model (DairyHealthSim) based on a weekly model was used to simulate herd dynamics, reproduction, milk production, culling decisions, health outcomes, and the management of health events. A specific module was developed for the simulation of quarter-level intramammary infection (IMI) acquisition and elimination during the lactation and dry-off periods, and 25 different farm settings were defined to represent herds with various udder health situations. We then defined 20 scenarios of SDCT by combining both the use of different thresholds of somatic cell count and milk bacteriology for treatment allocation and the use of internal teat sealant (ITS). All SDCT protocols had a low impact on farmer's income, and we identified some protocols with a positive farm gross margin (up to 15.83 CA$/dried- cow). We also found that adding an ITS to all cows led to greater economic gain. The application of SDCT had a low impact on farmers' working time, except when milk bacteriology was used for decision-making. Antimicrobial treatment to all cows above 200,000 cells/mL at last control, with the use of ITS on all cows, seems a good choice in most dairy farms. These findings could be used to convince farmers to adopt this strategy at dry-off.

Presence of pathogen DNA in milk harvested from quarters is associated to changes in cows' milk yield and composition.

BACKGROUND: Intramammary infection is the result of invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in the mammary gland and commonly leads to mastitis in dairy animals. Although much has been done to improve cows' udder health, mastitis remains a significant and costly health issue for dairy farmers, especially if subclinical. In this study, quarter milk samples from clinically healthy cows were harvested to detect pathogens via quantitative PCR (qPCR) and evaluate changes in individual milk traits according to the number of quarters infected and the type of microorganism(s). A commercial qPCR kit was used for detection of Mycoplasma bovis, Mycoplasma spp., Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, Prototheca spp., Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Enterococcus spp. and Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis. Quarter and pooled milk information of 383 Holstein, 132 Simmental, 129 Rendena, and 112 Jersey cows in 9 Italian single-breed herds was available. RESULTS: Among the cows with pathogen(s) present in at least 1 quarter, CNS was the most commonly detected DNA, followed by Streptococcus uberis, Mycoplasma bovis, and Streptococcus agalactiae. Cows negative to qPCR were 206 and had the lowest milk somatic cell count. Viceversa, cows with DNA isolated in ≥ 3 quarters were those with the highest somatic cell count. Moreover, when major pathogens were isolated in ≥ 3 quarters, milk had the lowest casein index and lactose content. In animals with pathogen(s) DNA isolated, the extent with whom milk yield and major solids were impaired did not significantly differ between major and minor pathogens. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of the number of affected quarters on the pool milk quality traits was investigated in clinically healthy cows using a commercial kit. Results remark the important negative effect of subclinical udder inflammations on milk yield and quality, but more efforts should be made to investigate the presence of untargeted microorganisms, as they may be potentially dangerous for cows. For a smarter use of antimicrobials, analysis of milk via qPCR is advisable - especially in cows at dry off - to identify quarters at high risk of inflammation and thus apply a targeted/tailored treatment.

Determination of prevalence of subclinical mastitis, characterization of intra-mammary infection-causing bacteria, and antibiotic susceptibility in dairy camels in Jigjiga City, Somali region, Ethiopia.

Background: Subclinical mastitis in camels, an inflammation of the udder without visible signs, can reduce milk quality and raise bacteria levels. Regular monitoring of camel milk is crucial for consumer safety. Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted in Jigjiga city, Ethiopia to investigate the prevalence and characteristics of subclinical mastitis in she-camels. The study included 244 lactating she-camels from three privately-owned camel dairy farms, and a questionnaire survey was conducted with 60 camel owners. Results: The overall prevalence of subclinical mastitis in she-camels was 10.6% (26/244), with no significant difference among the studied dairy farms. Risk factors that influenced the result of California Mastitis Test (CMT) included age and udder and leg hygiene. The study revealed that S. aureus was the most prevalent bacterium among the isolated bacteria, with a prevalence rate of 34.5%. This was followed by S. agalactiae, S. dysgalactiae, and Pasteurella multocida, with prevalence rates of 29.8, 19.4, and 16.2%, respectively. Among the isolated bacteria, 84.5% were sensitive to Erythromycin, 60% to Streptomycin, 44.7% to Oxytetracycline, and 36.7% to Tetracycline. Interviews with camel owners revealed that 66.7% used mixed herd grazing methods and reported feed shortage. Treatment practices for sick camels included modern veterinary drugs, traditional medicines, or a combination of both. The owners of camel dairy farms did not maintain proper hygiene practices during milking, such as not using soap when washing hands. Conclusion: Addressing camel mastitis necessitates access to alternative drugs, comprehensive herder training, and enhanced management practices.

Effects of different tooth grinding procedures on the occurrence of tooth injuries, skin lesions, performance and behaviour of suckling piglets.

BACKGROUND: Immediately after birth, newborn piglets fight to establish a teat order. During this process, lesions appear on the piglets' faces and on the sows' teats, which is why tooth resection is carried out on many farms in Germany even though it is known that this procedure is frequently resulting in pulp openings. The opening of a pulp cave is suspected to cause painful tooth alterations and may be an entrance for infectious agents. The purpose of this study was to analyse the effect of tooth resection on skin lesions, development of bodyweight and behaviour in suckling piglets. Four days prepartum, 110 sows in farrow-to-finish production were assigned to one of three treatments. Litters had their teeth left intact (control group, CG), ground with a tea-cup roller head (Tea-cup head grinder group, TCG, Wilofa Diamant, D-56,133 Fachbach, Germany) or ground with a diamond rolling head (rolling head grinder group, RG, IBS/E Company Proxxon GmbH, 54,343 Föhren, Germany). The number of pulp openings in the RG and TCG was examined using a random sample. Piglet body weight and skin lesion scores were recorded within the first 24 h after birth and during each week of the suckling period. Each sow's udder was examined before farrowing, in the second week of lactation and at weaning. The behaviour of the litters from nine sows was video-recorded throughout the suckling period. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of tooth grinding by a tea-cup head (compared to grinding by a diamond roller head and no grinding [control group]) on the behaviour and average daily gain of piglets as well as on skin lesions on sow udder. RESULTS: The number of dental injuries was significantly greater in the RG than in the TCG (p < 0.01). Head lesions on piglets were significantly more common in the CG than in the RG (p = 0. 02). Compared to CG piglets, TCG piglets had a significantly greater weight at the end of the suckling period (p = 0.02). No significant difference between treatments was found in the sows' udder (parenchyma, skin, or teat) or in the behaviour of the litters. CONCLUSION: As tooth grinding is frequently inducing pulp openings, the necessity of the procedure should be carefully and critically scrutinised. In case tooth resection seems inevitable until the underlying management problems have been solved, the Tea-cup grinding head should be used due to significantly fewer pulp openings.

Effects of Parity and Somatic Cell Count Threshold on Udder Morphology, Milkability Traits, and Milk Quality in Canarian Goats.

The effects of parity and somatic cell count in milk (SCC) threshold on the udder morphology, milkability traits, and milk composition was evaluated in 41 Canarian goats in mid-lactation. The animals were divided according to parity (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), and a SCC threshold of 2000 × 103 cells/mL in milk was set to evaluate the effect of this factor on the different measured parameters. Results showed that primiparous goats had the udder smaller and less distended than multiparous goats, but no differences were detected on milk flow parameters. Furthermore, SCC and total bacterial count (TBC) tended to be higher when the parity increased. On the other hand, goats with SCC ≤ 2000 × 103 had higher cistern-floor distance (CF) and lower TBC values compared with those goats with a count above the predetermined threshold. The results suggest that a reduction in SCC can be achieved by a selection of udder morphological traits. Moreover, milk flow parameters do not seem to be a tool to determine the udder health status in Canarian goats, but long-term studies are needed to verify it.

Genetic parameters for udder conformation traits derived from Cartesian coordinates generated by robotic milking systems in North American Holstein cattle.

Udder conformation is directly related to milk yield, cow health, workability, and welfare. Automatic milking systems (AMS, also known as milking robots) have become popular worldwide, and the number of dairy farms adopting these systems have increased considerably over the past years. In each milking visit, AMS record the location of the 4 teats as Cartesian coordinates in a xyz plan, which can then be used to derive udder conformation traits. AMS generate a large amount of per milking visit data for individual cows, which contribute to an accurate assessment of important traits such as udder conformation without the addition of human classifier errors (in subjective scoring systems). Therefore, the primary objectives of this study were to estimate genomic-based genetic parameters for udder conformation traits derived from AMS records in North American Holstein cattle and to assess the genetic correlation between the derived traits for evaluating the feasibility of multi-trait genomic selection for breeding cows that are more suitable for milking in AMS. The Cartesian teat coordinates measured during each milking visit were collected by 36 milking robots in 4,480 Holstein cows from 2017 to 2021, resulting in 5,317,488 records. A total of 4,118 of these Holstein cows were also genotyped for 57,600 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Five udder conformation traits were derived: udder balance (UB, mm), udder depth (UD, mm), front teat distance (FTD, mm), rear teat distance (RTD, mm), and distance front-rear (DFR, mm). In addition, 2 traits directly related to cow productivity in the system were added to the study: daily milk yield (DY) and milk electroconductivity (EC; as an indicator of mastitis). Variance components and genetic parameters for UB, UD, FTD, RTD, DFR, DY, and EC were estimated based on repeatability animal models. The estimates of heritability (±standard error, SE) for UB, UD, FTD, RTD, DFR, DY, and EC were 0.41 ± 0.02, 0.79 ± 0.01, 0.53 ± 0.02, 0.40 ± 0.02, 0.65 ± 0.02, 0.20 ± 0.02, and 0.46 ± 0.02, respectively. The repeatability estimates (±SE) for UB, UD, FTD, RTD, and DFR were 0.82 ± 0.01, 0.93 ± 0.01, 0.87 ± 0.01, 0.83 ± 0.01, and 0.88 ± 0.01, respectively. The strongest genetic correlations were observed between the FTD and RTD (0.54 ± 0.03), UD and DFR (-0.47 ± 0.03), DFR and FTD (0.32 ± 0.03), and UD and FTD (-0.31 ± 0.03). These results suggest that udder conformation traits derived from Cartesian coordinates from AMS are moderately to highly heritable. Furthermore, the moderate genetic correlations between these traits should be considered when developing selection sub-indexes. The most relevant genetic correlations between traits related to cow milk productivity and udder conformation traits were between UD and EC (-0.25 ± 0.03) and between DFR and DY (0.30 ± 0.04), in which both genetic correlations are favorable. These findings will contribute to the design of genomic selection schemes for improving udder conformation in North American Holstein cattle, especially in precision dairy farms.

An ovine model for investigation of the microenvironment of the male mammary gland.

The specific biology of the male breast remains relatively unexplored in spite of the increasing global prevalence of male breast cancer. Delineation of the microenvironment of the male breast is restricted by the low availability of human samples and a lack of characterisation of appropriate animal models. Unlike the mouse, the male ovine gland persists postnatally. We suggest that the male ovine mammary gland constitutes a promising adjunctive model for the male breast. In this study, we evaluate the male ovine mammary gland microenvironment, comparing intact and neutered males. Assessment of the glandular histo-anatomy highlights the resemblance of the male gland to that of neonatal female sheep and confirms the presence of rudimentary terminal duct lobular units. Irrespective of neutered status, cell proliferation in epithelial and stromal compartments is similarly low in males, and cell proliferation in epithelial cells and in the intralobular stroma is significantly lower than in pubertal female sheep. Between 42% and 72% of the luminal mammary epithelial cells in the male gland express the androgen receptor and expression is significantly reduced by neutering. Luminal epithelial cells within the intact and neutered male gland also express oestrogen receptor alpha, but minimal progesterone receptor expression is observed. The distribution of leukocytes within the ducts and stroma is similar to the mammary gland of female sheep and females of other species. Both macrophages and T lymphocytes are intercalated in the epithelial bilayer and are more abundant in the intralobular stroma than the interlobular stroma, suggesting that they may have a protective immunological function within the vestigial glandular tissue of the male sheep. Mast cells are also observed within the stroma. These cells cluster near the glandular tissue and are frequently located adjacent to blood vessels. The abundance of mast cells is significantly higher in intact males compared to neutered males, suggesting that hormone signalling may impact mast cell recruitment. In this study, we demonstrate the utility of the male ovine mammary gland as a model for furthering our knowledge of postnatal male mammary biology.

Genetic parameters for reproductive traits and somatic cell score in U.S. dairy goats.

There are no studies regarding the estimation of genetic parameters and genetic trends for reproductive traits and somatic cells in goats. Their knowledge allows optimization of selection schemes. The objective of this study was to estimate genetic parameters and genetic and phenotypic trends for age at first kidding (AFK), kidding interval (KIN) and somatic cell score (SCS). Analyses were conducted within and across seven US goat breeds, namely, Nubian (NU), Alpine (AL), LaMancha (LM), Toggenburg (TO), Saanen (SA), Nigerian Dwarf (ND) and Oberhasli (OB), and a set of all of these breeds (AB). The restricted maximum likelihood methodology and trivariate animal models were used. Genetic and phenotypic trends were estimated using regression models. The average and standard deviation of AFK, KIN and SCS for AB were 573.6 ± 178.5 days, 418.8 ± 125.5 days and 4.67 ± 2.23 Log2, respectively. The heritabilities (h2) and standard errors of AFK, KIN and SCS for AB were 0.28 ± 0.02, 0.04 ± 0.02 and 0.22 ± 0.01, respectively. The h2 ranged from 0.15 (SA) to 0.37 (NU) for AFK, from 0.04 (AB) to 0.10 (AL) for KIN, and from 0.11 (TO) to 0.26 (LM and ND) for SCS. Genetic correlations between AFK and KIN and between AFK and SCS for AB were positive and weak (0.07 and 0.12, respectively) but significant (P < 0.01). Genetic correlations between SCS and KIN were significant (P < 0.01) for all the breeds and ranged from -0.15 (NU) to 0.44 (AL). Genetic correlations between AFK and SCS in the NU and AL breeds were similar (approximately 0.21). A positive genetic trend was found for KIN in the SA breed, which caused an increase in the number of days between consecutive kiddings. The genetic trend of SCS for the NU, AL and ND breeds was negative and decreased annually, which is beneficial for producers. These first results show the intensity and direction of some favorable/unfavorable relationships between AFK or KIN and SCS Log2 in some U.S. goat genetic groups.

In the Murine and Bovine Maternal Mammary Gland Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 is Activated in Clusters of Epithelial Cells around the Day of Birth.

Signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) proteins regulate mammary development. Here we investigate the expression of phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) in the mouse and cow around the day of birth. We present localised colocation analysis, applicable to other mammary studies requiring identification of spatially congregated events. We demonstrate that pSTAT3-positive events are multifocally clustered in a non-random and statistically significant fashion. Arginase-1 expressing cells, consistent with macrophages, exhibit distinct clustering within the periparturient mammary gland. These findings represent a new facet of mammary STAT3 biology, and point to the presence of mammary sub-microenvironments.

The Influence of Milk Leakage, Udder Pressure and Further Risk Factors on the Development of New Intramammary Infections during the Dry Period of Dairy Cows.

Prevention of new intramammary infection (NIMI) during the dry period (DP) is essential to prevent the development of mastitis in dairy cows. To investigate risk factors for NIMI, 212 cows, comprising a total of 848 udder quarters, were examined in this study. Quarter milk samples were taken on the day of drying off and 7 ± 3 days after calving. Cow- and quarter-level associated risk factors were assessed at the beginning of the DP and after calving. In total, 7.1% of the udder quarters developed an NIMI between the samplings. Non-aureus staphylococci (40.4%) and Gram-negative pathogens (22.8%) were most frequently the cause of NIMI. The observed milk leakage prevalence was 16.7%, with a peak 24 h after drying off. Simultaneously, the udder pressure peaked 24 h after drying off. A significant correlation between milk yield on the day before drying off and milk leakage could be proven. Cows with quarters leaking milk produced an average milk yield of 28.32 kg on the day before drying off. Generalised linear mixed models and odds ratios were calculated to determine the significant risk factors for NIMI during the DP and early lactation. Quarters leaking milk had 3.4 higher odds for NIMI between the samplings compared to quarters without milk leakage. Quarters from cows with dirty udders had 3.1 higher odds of developing an NIMI between the samplings compared to quarters from cows with clean udders. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of dry cow management before drying off and during the critical period of active involution of the udder tissue.

Ultrasonographic, endoscopic and radiographic examinations of the dromedary mammary glands and teats.

The aim of the present study was to examine the mammary gland of dromedary camels using ultrasonography, endoscopy and radiography. These techniques are easy to perform in the field and feasible to diagnose pathological conditions of the mammary gland. Udders of 49 slaughtered and 26 adult dromedary camels submitted for necropsy were used for the examinations. Additionally, 11 lactating female dromedary camels were selected for the ultrasonographic udder examination. The transition from the milk ducts into the udder cistern, the teat cistern and the teat canals were examined in individual udders. Teat cistern length, teat end width, teat wall thickness, teat cistern width and middle cistern wall thickness were measured using ultrasonography. The measurements resulted in mean values of the teat cistern length of 37.3 mm, the teat end width of 2.0 mm, the teat wall thickness of 4.4 mm, the teat cistern width of 8.2 mm and the cistern wall thickness of 3.5 mm. The teat wall was differentiated into three layers, a hyperechoic outer layer, a hypoechoic middle layer and a hyperechoic inner layer. The mid cistern wall was hyperechoic. Endoscopic examination is an easy to perform and practicable method for examining the inner structures of the teats of dead animals; however, the feasibility has not been shown in lactating animals yet. Ring-like folds were present in the teat cistern, which protruded horizontally into the lumen. It was also possible to visualize the branchlike transition of the teat cistern into the larger milk ducts. Radiographic examination using barium sulfate contrast medium showed that the teat cistern ends in a network of initially wide but branching and narrowing milk ducts. The two teat canals and cisterns are completely independent of each other and there is no communication between the glandular tissue of the two canals and cisterns.

Strategic administration of antioxidant multiminerals and vitamins to transitional buffaloes augments antioxidant and udder defense mechanisms in early lactation.

The aim of the study was to examine the effects of repeated administrations of antioxidant multiminerals and vitamins in transition buffaloes on udder defense mechanism, antioxidant activity and occurrence of intramammary infection (IMI) in early lactation period. Forty clinically healthy pregnant buffaloes were enrolled 45 days before expected date of calving and randomly allocated into five different supplementation groups (n = 8): only basal ration (control), vitamin E and selenium (VES), multiminerals (MM), ascorbic acid (AA) and chromium (Cr) picolinate in basal diet. The udder defense mechanism was monitored by measuring phagocytic activity (PA), myeloperoxidase (MPO) and nitric oxide (NO) productions in milk leukocytes, antioxidant activity was evaluated by measuring total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in plasma and occurrence of IMI was assessed by milk cytology, bacterial count in milk and visible clinical signs of udder until day 28 post-calving. The results showed that the VES and MM supplementations exhibited significantly higher PA, MPO and NO productions of milk leukocytes till first week of lactation whereas, elevated mean TAC in plasma was maintained from day -7 to 1 of calving in MM supplementation group as compared to control group. Statistically, no significant difference in occurrences of subclinical or clinical IMI was noted across the groups until four weeks of lactation. Taken together, it is concluded that repeated administrations of VES and MM to transition buffaloes could be an effective strategy to maintain good udder health by augmenting milk leukocyte functions and antioxidant status and preventing incidence of IMI in early lactation.

Estimation of udder emptying based on milk constituents of strip samples after milking.

Milk ejection disorders were induced by oxytocin receptor blockade. We tested the hypothesis that the degree of udder emptying at incomplete milk ejection can be estimated based on the concentration of various milk constituents in different milk fraction samples. To induce different levels of spontaneous udder emptying (SUE) 10 Holstein dairy cows were milked either with or without i.v. injection of the oxytocin receptor blocking agent atosiban (ATO). In ATOearly, 12 µg/kg BW ATO was injected immediately before and in ATOlate directly after a 1 min manual udder preparation. The normal milking routine served as Control treatment. In all 3 treatments the udder was completely emptied by the i.v. injection of 10 IU oxytocin (OT) at the end of spontaneous milk flow. During all experimental milkings 4 milk samples were taken in all treatments: at the start of udder preparation (foremilk; FM), immediately after cessation of spontaneous milk flow and cluster detachment by hand stripping (strip milk; SM), from spontaneous removed milk in the bucket 1 (milk before OT; MBOT) and from the milk obtained after OT injection in the bucket 2 (milk after OT; MAOT). Fat, protein, lactose and electrolytes (Na, Cl and K) were measured in each milk sample. In addition, electrical conductivity (EC) was determined in parallel to continuous milk flow recording. The treatments induced individual degrees of SUE; therefore, the final evaluations of data were based on SUE classes instead of treatments. The most pronounced differences of milk constituents at different degrees of SUE were found for the milk fat content. The fat content of SM and MBOT remained almost unchanged up to 60% SUE, but was considerably higher if >80% of the milk was spontaneously removed. The concentrations of Na and Cl were highest and of K lowest if less than 20% on milk was received in the different samples. The EC was higher in SM and MBOT if <20% of milk was received. In conclusion, the blockade of the OT effect influences primarily the fat content, which confirmed an OT-induced fat secretion during milking. Similar effects are likely found in situations of disturbed milk ejections, caused by a lacking or reduced release of OT in response to different degrees of tactile udder stimulation. Our results show that the measurement of fat content and the EC in strip milk samples collected after cluster detachment can be used to estimate the completeness of udder emptying.

Anatomy and Physiology of Water Buffalo Mammary Glands: An Anatomofunctional Comparison with Dairy Cattle.

The present review aims to analyze the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the mammary gland and udders of water buffalo by making an anatomofunctional comparison with dairy cattle. It will also discuss the knowledge generated around the physiological regulation of milk ejection in the water buffalo. It was found that buffalo's average udder depth and width is approximately 20 cm smaller than Bos cattle. One of the main differences with dairy cattle is a longer teat canal length (around 8.25-11.56 cm), which highly influences buffalo milking. In this sense, a narrower teat canal (2.71 ± 0.10 cm) and thicker sphincter muscle are associated with needing higher vacuum levels when using machine milking in buffalo. Moreover, the predominant alveolar fraction of water buffalo storing 90-95% of the entire milk production is another element that can be related to the lower milk yields in buffalo (when compared to Bos cattle) and the requirements for prolonged prestimulation in this species. Considering the anatomical characteristics of water buffalo's udder could help improve bubaline dairy systems.

Correlation of udder thermogram and somatic cell counts as a tool for detection of subclinical mastitis in buffaloes.

This study aimed to monitor the mammary health of 37 multiparous Murrah buffaloes through infrared thermography (IRT). Based on the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and milk somatic cell counts (SCC), buffaloes were grouped into healthy (H, n = 16), subclinical mastitis (SCM, n = 10), and clinical mastitis (CM, n = 11). Buffaloes were milked twice daily in the morning (5:00-6:00 AM) and evening (5:00-6:00 PM). Rectal temperature and respiratory rates were recorded, CMT was performed and thermal images of the mammary gland of all the buffaloes were taken before and after each milking. Milk samples were analysed after each milking for SCC, fat, Solids-Not-Fat (SNF), density, protein, lactose, salts, conductivity, and pH immediately in the laboratory from fresh milk samples. The surface temperature of the periocular region of both the eyes, muzzle, flank, and vagina were also taken. Thermal images were used to assess the surface temperature of the udder (USST), teat apex (TAT), teat barrel (TB1T), teat base (TB2T), and teat skin surface (TSST). Eye and USST showed significantly higher temperatures (p < 0.05), whereas skin surface temperatures (SST) of different body parts were non-significant in both SCM and CM animals than buffaloes in the H group. Milk SCC showed a positive correlation with conductivity (r > 0.7), salts, and pH (r < 0.6) and a negative correlation with fat, SNF, density, protein, and lactose. TAT, TB1T, TB2T, TSST, and USST were positively correlated with milk SCC. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis of H and SCM groups showed that USST before milking had optimum sensitivity (Se = 0.80) and specificity (Sp = 0.906) among the various skin temperatures recorded. Thermal images captured during the morning showed higher sensitivity compared to images taken in the evening. Results indicate IRT can be used to monitor the mammary health of buffaloes but using IRT in conjunction with milk SCC can help in the accurate prediction of SCM in dairy buffaloes.

A multi-methods, multi-actor exploration of the benefits and barriers to milk recording on Irish farms using the COM-B model.

Milk recording is a critical tool in dairy farming, providing individual cow information. When used effectively, this data contributes to on-farm productivity, herd health management decisions and supports prudent veterinary prescribing of antimicrobials. Although an industry and government priority, uptake has been relatively slow in Ireland. This multi-methods, three-part study aimed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the benefits to farm performance, and factors driving uptake of milk recording on Irish dairy farms. It involved an economic analysis of N=516 farms from 2008-2019, a workshop with N=26 stakeholders and an online survey of N=197 non-milk-recording farmers. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed using econometric models and thematic analysis respectively. Results were synthesised using the COM-B model to gain a deeper understanding of what drives the target behaviour. The study revealed that agricultural education, farm location, farm specialisation in dairy and membership of a farmer discussion group were the main factors influencing uptake of milk recording. Milk recording was associated with a €39.04/cow increase in gross margin, a 177.58 litres/cow increase in milk yield and a reduction of 13,450 cells/ml in bulk milk tank somatic cell count readings. Infrastructural constraints, cost, lack of benefits and workload were the most reported perceived barriers to milk recording by farmers. The Behaviour Change Wheel illustrates how to utilise findings and systematically develop future interventions to increase milk recording uptake. This study highlights the importance of a multi-methods approach to agricultural technology adoption and the need for evidence-based methodology when developing behaviour change interventions.

Milk microbiota of Holstein Friesian cattle reared in Lahore: Association with mastitis.

The dairy industry is reshaping itself and becoming commercialized in Pakistan due to the increased demand for milk to overcome the shortage. Exotic breeds such as Holstein Friesian, a high milk producing breed have started being reared more on farms in Pakistan. Along with other issues, mastitis does affects the milk production of this breed. The objective of this study was to evaluate the milk composition in terms of bacterial communities in Holstein Friesian reared in Punjab, Pakistan and alteration in microbial composition with healthy and mastitic udder. Milk samples (n = 36) from farms rearing Holstein Friesian were collected. Among these samples, 05 samples from each three groups, HHF(healthy), CHF (clinical mastitis) and SHF (subclinical mastitis), based on their udder health condition, were processed using the 16 S r=RNA gene based technique. Diversity assessment as carried out by alpha diversity indices showed that milk samples from the udder infected with clinical mastitis were the least diverse and those from the healthy udder were more diverse. Beta diversity across samples showed a scattered pattern suggesting overlap amongst bacterial communities across different groups samples as depicted by PCA plots of beta diversity indices. The taxonomic profile revealed that Proteobacteria Firmicutes, Bacteroidota and Actinobacteriota were the major phyla detected across all groups. Proteobacteria dominated the HHF and SHF group while abundance of Firmicutes was higher in CHF group. Differences at other levels including order, genus and species were also recorded. The overall picture concludes that diverse microbiota is associated with different udder health conditions.