Review of SNP assays for disaster victim identification: Cost, time, and performance information for decision-makers.

In mass disaster events, forensic DNA laboratories may be called upon to quickly pivot their operations toward identifying bodies and reuniting remains with family members. Ideally, laboratories have considered this possibility in advance and have a plan in place. Compared with traditional short tandem repeat (STR) typing, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) may be better suited to these disaster victim identification (DVI) scenarios due to their small genomic target size, resulting in an improved success rate in degraded DNA samples. As the landscape of technology has shifted toward DNA sequencing, many forensic laboratories now have benchtop instruments available for massively parallel sequencing (MPS), facilitating this operational pivot from routine forensic STR casework to DVI SNP typing. Herein, we present the commercially available SNP sequencing assays amenable to DVI, we use data simulations to explore the potential for kinship prediction from SNP panels of varying sizes, and we give an example DVI scenario as context for presenting the matrix of considerations: kinship predictive potential, cost, and throughput of current SNP assay options. This information is intended to assist laboratories in choosing a SNP system for disaster preparedness.

A review of the contributions of forensic archaeology and anthropology to the process of disaster victim identification.

Forensic archaeology and anthropology have developed significantly over past decades and now provide considerable assistance to the investigation process of disaster victim recovery and identification. In what are often chaotic death and crime scenes, the formal process of utilizing archaeological methods can bring control, order, and ensure systematic search. Procedures assist in defining scene extent, locating victims and evidence, rule out areas for consideration, and provide standardized recording and quality assurance through dedicated use of standardized forms (pro formas). Combined archaeological and anthropological search methods maximize opportunities to recovery the missing through identifying remains, mapping distributions, and providing accounting of victims at the scene. Anthropological assistance in examinations contributes to individual assessment, resolving commingling and fragmentation issues, and utilizing DNA sampling methods and matching data to reassociate and account for the missing. Utilization of archaeology, anthropology, and DNA matching data provides scope to review crime scene recovery and determine requirements and potential for further survey and retrieval. Adopting the most suitable methods for a particular context can maximize recovery, efficiency, and resource use. Case studies demonstrate the utility of archaeological methods in a range of scenarios. They exemplify the success of multidisciplinary analysis in providing evidence of the sequence of events, the timing of events, the impact of taphonomic processes, the location and accounting of victims, and the demonstration of systematic scene search. The considerations provided in this article, utilizing archaeology and anthropology processes, may assist investigators in planning and implementing responses to mass fatalities.

Disaster victim identification: Stable isotope analysis and the identification of unknown decedents.

Within the complex world of disaster victim identification, or DVI, forensic science practitioners use a variety of investigative techniques to work toward a common goal: identification of the decedents, bringing closure to the affected communities. Identification is a complex undertaking; the event (disaster) also can be extraordinarily complex, as it may be an acute event, or one that spans months or years. Compounding this time issue, remains may be heavily fragmented, dispersed, commingled, or otherwise disrupted by either the perpetrators or the disaster itself. To help solve these complexities, we explore the use of stable isotope analysis (SIA) in DVI events. SIA can be used with a variety of body tissues (hair, nail, bone, and teeth), and each represents different time depths in a decedent's life. Bone collagen and tooth enamel carbonate are useful to reconstruct an individual's diet and source water intakes, respectively, leading to likely population or geographic origin determinations. Additionally, the carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures of bone collagen have calculated intraperson ranges. These facts allow investigators to determine likely origin of remains using isotopic data and can be used to link skeletal elements (to an individual), or perhaps more importantly, show that remains are not linked. Application of SIA can thus speed remains identification by eliminating individuals from short lists for identification, linking or decoupling remains, and reducing the need for some DNA testing. These strategies and hypothesis tests should commence early in the DVI process to achieve maximum effectiveness.

Evaluation of a New DNA Extraction Method on Challenging Bone Samples Recovered from a WWII Mass Grave.

Bones and teeth represent a common finding in ancient DNA studies and in forensic casework, even after a long burial. Genetic typing is the gold standard for the personal identification of skeletal remains, but there are two main factors involved in the successful DNA typing of such samples: (1) the set-up of an efficient DNA extraction method; (2) the identification of the most suitable skeletal element for the downstream genetic analyses. In this paper, a protocol based on the processing of 0.5 g of bone powder decalcified using Na2EDTA proved to be suitable for a semi-automated DNA extraction workflow using the Maxwell® FSC DNA IQ™ Casework Kit (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). The performance of this method in terms of DNA recovery and quality was compared with a full demineralisation extraction protocol based on Qiagen technology and kits. No statistically significant differences were scored according to the DNA recovery and DNA degradation index (p-values ≥ 0.176; r ≥ 0.907). This new DNA extraction protocol was applied to 88 bone samples (41 femurs, 19 petrous bones, 12 metacarpals and 16 molars) allegedly belonging to 27 World War II Italian soldiers found in a mass grave on the isle of Cres (Croatia). The results of the qPCR performed by the Quantifiler Human DNA Quantification kit showed values above the lowest Limit of Quantification (lLOQ; 23 pg/µL) for all petrous bones, whereas other bone types showed, in most cases, lower amounts of DNA. Replicate STR-CE analyses showed successful typing (that is, >12 markers) in all tests on the petrous bones, followed by the metacarpals (83.3%), femurs (52.2%) and teeth (20.0%). Full profiles (22/22 autosomal markers) were achieved mainly in the petrous bones (84.2%), followed by the metacarpals (41.7%). Stochastic amplification artefacts such as drop-outs or drop-ins occurred with a frequency of 1.9% in the petrous bones, whereas they were higher when the DNA recovered from other bone elements was amplified (up to 13.9% in the femurs). Overall, the results of this study confirm that petrous bone outperforms other bone elements in terms of the quantity and quality of the recovered DNA; for this reason, if available, it should always be preferred for genetic testing. In addition, our results highlight the need for accurate planning of the DVI operation, which should be carried out by a multi-disciplinary team, and the tricky issue of identifying other suitable skeletal elements for genetic testing. Overall, the results presented in this paper support the need to adopt preanalytical strategies positively related to the successful genetic testing of aged skeletal remains in order to reduce costs and the time of analysis.

Facial recognition for disaster victim identification.

Mass disaster events can result in high levels of casualties that need to be identified. Whilst disaster victim identification (DVI) relies on primary identifiers of DNA, fingerprints, and dental, these require ante-mortem data that may not exist or be easily obtainable. Facial recognition technology may be able to assist. Automated facial recognition has advanced considerably and access to ante-mortem facial images are readily available. Facial recognition could therefore be used to expedite the DVI process by narrowing down leads before primary identifiers are made available. This research explores the feasibility of using automated facial recognition technology to support DVI. We evaluated the performance of a commercial-off-the-self facial recognition algorithm on post-mortem images (representing images taken after a mass disaster) against ante-mortem images (representing a database that may exist within agencies who hold face databases for identity documents (such as passports or driver's licenses). We explored facial recognition performance for different operational scenarios, with different levels of face image quality, and by cause of death. Our research is the largest facial recognition evaluation of post-mortem and ante-mortem images to date. We demonstrated that facial recognition technology would be valuable for DVI and that the performance varies by image quality and cause of death. We provide recommendations for future research.

Gender Identification by Fingerprint Pattern and Salivary Blood Group Antigen Expression: A Forensic Approach.

Introduction Fingerprints found at the crime scene are important and valuable evidence, as they are unique to every individual. Determining the blood group from the blood samples obtained at the site of the crime helps in identifying a person. However, where blood stains are not available, saliva obtained at the crime site can be used to identify the victim. Since fingerprint patterns and blood groups are unique to every individual and remain unchanged throughout life, the correlation between dermatoglyphics and blood groups can be of use in victim identification. Objectives The present study is conducted with the objective of finding out if there is any association between the distribution of fingerprint patterns and blood groups and if this association is of use in gender identification. Materials and method Fingerprint patterns were determined in 200 (females: n = 152, males: n = 48) dental undergraduate students in the age range of 18 to 24 years. ABO blood grouping was done on saliva by using the absorption-elution method. To determine the accuracy of ABO blood group determination using saliva, it was correlated with the ABO blood grouping in blood.  Observations and result The most common fingerprint pattern was found to be loops (87, 43.50%), followed by whorls (81, 40.50%) and arches (32, 16.00%). The most common blood group was B (68, 34%), followed by O (46, 23%) and A (42, 21%), and the least common was AB (12, 6%). A higher percentage of secretors in saliva was observed in females (130, 86%) than males (38, 79%). The correlation of gender with blood group and fingerprint pattern showed that in males, the most common blood group was B (20, 42%), and the most common fingerprint pattern was whorls (21, 44%). In females, the most common blood group was B (48, 32%), while the most common fingerprint pattern was loop (68, 45%). Conclusion Present study reports an association between blood group and dermatoglyphics, which may help in gender identification. Saliva can be used as a helpful tool in victim identification in cases where blood stains are not available.

Allied Dental Students' Perceived Knowledge, Confidence, and Attitudes Regarding Disaster Victim Identification Topics.

Purpose Disaster victim identification (DVI) service requires knowledge, confidence, and an attitude (KCA) of readiness. The purpose of this study was to assess allied dental students' perceived KCA regarding DVI skills and topics.Methods A convenience sample of senior dental hygiene students (n=27) and senior dental assistant students (n=14) were recruited by email then presented mismatched simulated antemortem (AM) and postmortem (PM) bitewing radiographs and asked to indicate correct matches. Collectively, participants made 205 radiographic matches and indicated 205 degrees of certainty binarily as "positive" or "possible" (one per match). Participants also completed a researcher designed pretest/posttest electronic survey with seven 3-point Likert-scale items with answer options of "slightly", "moderately", or "extremely" regarding self-perceived knowledge. Statistical analyses were conducted with R software using an α=0.05 significance level.Results A total of n=41 students participated, yielding a response rate of 85.4%. A one-sided linear trend test revealed statistically significant increases of perceived confidence in knowledge from pretest to posttest regarding forensic odontologists' role in DVI (p<0.0001), DVI applications for mass fatality incidents (MFI) (p<0.0001), role of dental radiology in DVI (p<0.0001), and dental morphology applications for DVI (p<0.0001). Participants indicated moderate or extreme confidence in personal clinical skillsets to assist forensic odontologists with DVI. A one-sided Fisher's exact test revealed a statistically significant (p<0.05) positive association between expressed degree of certainty (confidence) and correct radiographic matches. A one-sided linear trend test revealed statistically significant (p<0.0001) improvements in attitude regarding participants' perceived importance for their respective professions to volunteer in DVI.Conclusion Participants of this study reported significant improvements of self-perceived KCA regarding DVI skills and topics. These characteristics may encourage allied dental professionals to pursue further DVI educational opportunities and future service when support is needed for MFI.

Advances in postmortem fingerprinting: Applications in disaster victim identification.

Postmortem fingerprinting is the fastest and most reliable way to scientifically identify unknown decedents from mass fatality incidents. In disaster victim identification (DVI), fingerprints, DNA, and dental examinations are the three primary methods of identification. Additional secondary identifiers such as comparative medical radiography, scars, marks, and tattoos can also be used if viable antemortem information can be located. As DNA technology continues to evolve, RAPID DNA may now identify a profile within 90 min if the remains are not degraded or comingled. When there are true unknowns, however, there is usually no DNA, dental, or medical records to retrieve for a comparison without a tentative identity. It is imperative to understand how to properly collect postmortem prints following various postmortem changes, which databases are available to search against, and what additional resources are available prior to any such event occurring. With advances in technology, automated fingerprint searching is faster than ever before. Mobile devices can now search all the major databases within a matter of minutes from a cell phone or tablet utilizing a peripheral fingerprint scanner. Preliminary research into the application of WD-40® when utilizing optical-capacitive scanners has shown to greatly increase the efficacy of capturing usable fingerprints. This additional step allows for the digital capture of fingerprints in even complicated settings, both in daily cases and DVI incidents. This article outlines all the available ways to obtain postmortem fingerprints in complex cases, and how they can be applied to efficiently and effectively used in the DVI process.

Investigative genetic genealogy for human remains identification.

Investigative genetic genealogy (IGG) has emerged as a highly effective tool for tying a forensic DNA sample to an identity. While much of the attention paid to IGG has focused on cases where the DNA is from an unknown suspect, IGG has also been used to help close hundreds of unidentified human remains (UHR) cases. Genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotype data can be obtained from forensic samples using microarray genotyping or whole-genome sequencing (WGS) with protocols optimized for degraded DNA. After bioinformatic processing, the SNP data can be uploaded to public GG databases that allow law enforcement usage, where it can be compared with other users' data to find distant relatives. A genetic genealogist can then build the family trees of the relatives to narrow down the identity of the source of the forensic DNA sample. To date, 367 UHR identifications using IGG have been publicly announced. The same IGG techniques developed and refined for UHR cases have significant potential for disaster victim identification, where DNA is often extremely compromised, and close family references may not be available. This paper reviews the laboratory, bioinformatic, and genealogical techniques used in IGG for UHR cases and presents three case studies that demonstrate how IGG is assisting with remains identification.

Managing large volume data sets in the process of identifying missing persons: Contributions from the International Commission on Missing Persons.

The process of locating and identifying missing persons presents a complex challenge that hinges on the collection and comparison of diverse data sets. This commentary offers an overview of some of the difficulties and considerations associated with data management in the context of large-scale missing person identifications. Such complexities include the uniqueness of each disaster event, the response time to the event, the variable quality and quantity of data, and the involvement of numerous stakeholders, all of which contribute to the intricacies of data management. In addition, the paramount considerations of privacy and ethical standards further compound these challenges, especially when dealing with sensitive information such as genetic data. This commentary describes the integrated Data Management System (iDMS) developed by the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) as one example of a comprehensive, freely available solution for data collection, storage, protection, and analysis in missing person cases. The various advantages of the system are discussed, including the system's interoperability among the diverse array of stakeholders involved. While the iDMS streamlines data management processes and therefore represents a significant advancement in the field of missing person identification, it is concluded that the pending issue extends beyond the software tools to encompass the lack of political will among stakeholders to collaborate there remains a pressing need for all stakeholders involved in the identification process to commit to a mechanism that facilitates compatibility and interoperability if different tools are used in disaster victim identification (DVI) scenarios.

Forensic odontology in disaster victim identification.

This paper reviews MFI's from a historical perspective commencing with DVI in the late 20th century. For this paper, this era, 1970-90s is designated as the early modern period. As DVI by DNA analysis is introduced into the process, in the beginning of the mid-1990s, or late modern period, a shift in ID modality usage is noted. A statistical analysis of the primary identification (ID) methods established that dental identification was the majority identifier, or gold standard, in the early modern era. Although primarily viewed from a United States (US) perspective, referenced international incidents parallel the incidents investigated by US authorities. The introduction of DNA demarcated the early from the late modern era. Through research, development, and application this highly discriminating ID method would effectively, surpass dental ID as the gold standard into the late modern era. DNA ID would eventually overcome early criticism regarding cost and time consumption. In the MFI's discussed, the discriminating accuracy of DNA, when referenced against the dental identifications, validated the reliability of dental ID. Errors will be significantly minimized through confirmatory reconciliation by more than one ID method. In conclusion despite increased usage of DNA, dental ID has not been eliminated and remains a major contributor to DVI. Dental ID continues to develop through increased application of advanced imaging technology. Despite DNA's rapid advancement and application to DVI, the multidisciplinary approach to scientific identification should remain in the near future. Therefore, comparative dental ID will remain an important and reliable contributor to DVI.

Forensic odontology in DVI-A path forward.

Dental identification is a pillar of disaster victim identification (DVI). Dental identification is accurate, efficient, inexpensive, and accepted in courts of law. The (known) antemortem (AM) dental charts and radiographic images acquired from the dentist of the missing person are evaluated, processed, and compared to post mortem (PM) findings present in the dentition or fragments of the dentition of the deceased individual. These comparisons evaluate and assess individuating restorative dental work, dental anatomical areas of concordance, spatial relationships of teeth one to another, and occasionally calculate the degree of "uniqueness" of either or both of the AM and PM dentition compared to known population databases. In a multiple fatality incident, odontologists may utilize age stratification to assist other means of identification. Computer comparison algorithms using recorded data can indicate possible matches between AM and PM data sets. Following clinical assessment, collection of post mortem tooth specimens for DNA profiling generation may be undertaken. This paper will highlight modern and efficient use of these tools. The framework for how dental identification in these incidents is currently managed is presented. The authors propose a change to this approach that moves away from interpretive subjective assessment toward comparisons based largely on objective data. The aim of this paper is to highlight the benefits of minimizing subjective decisions and maximizing objective data in the dental DVI process while simultaneously reducing risk to clinical personnel and minimizing costs by reducing the number of clinicians required onsite.

Identification of the Remains of an Adult Using DNA from Their Deciduous Teeth as a Reference Sample.

In many forensic cases, the identification of human remains is performed by comparing their genetic profile with profiles from reference samples of relatives, usually the parents. Here, we report, for the first time, the identification of the remains of an adult using DNA from the person's deciduous teeth as a reference sample. Fragments of a skeletonized and burned body were found, and a short tandem repeat (STR) profile was obtained. A woman looking for her missing son went to the authorities. When the DNA profile of the woman was compared to a database, a positive match suggested a first-degree kinship with the person to whom the remains belonged. The woman had kept three deciduous molars from her son for more than thirty years. DNA typing of dental pulp was performed. The genetic profiles obtained from the molars and those from the remains coincided in all alleles. The random match probability was 1 in 2.70 × 1021. Thus, the remains were fully identified. In the routine identification of human remains, ambiguous STR results may occur due to the presence of null alleles or other mutational events. In addition, erroneous results can be produced by false matches with close family members or even with people who are completely unrelated to the victim, such that, in some cases, a probability of paternity greater than 99.99% does not necessarily indicate biological paternity. Whenever possible, it is preferable to use reference samples from the putative victim as a source of DNA for identification.

Understanding the challenges of disaster victim identification: perspectives of Australian forensic practitioners.

Disaster victim identification (DVI) is an important process in the aftermath of disasters to provide answers for the families and communities of victims. Australian forensic practitioners contribute to such processes internationally under difficult post-disaster circumstances. The aim of the study was to better understand the challenges experienced by forensic practitioners in international DVI operations. Participants (N = 20) included DNA analysts, fingerprint examiners, forensic odontologists, forensic pathologists, and mortuary technicians who had experience in DVI operations. Participants were interviewed about their experiences and perceptions of the challenges of DVI. The findings provide valuable insights into the types of DVI operations in which Australian forensic practitioners have been involved internationally. Thematic analysis of interview data resulted in five main themes: the post-disaster work environment; DVI management and processes; political and financial influences; teamwork in intercultural and interdisciplinary contexts; and confronting the emotional realities of DVI work. The analysis highlights the interrelated challenges associated with DVI operations in international contexts. Practitioners also provided suggestions for improvement, which generally aligned with the themes and reflected an ethos of learning and continuous improvement in DVI. Further research on education and training and capacity-development initiatives is warranted.

Stature estimation from the scapula measurements using 3D-volume rendering technique by regression equations in the Northern Indian population.

The present study assessed the correlation between the stature and scapular measurements from both sides in order to develop population-specific regression equations to estimate the stature from measurements of the scapula in a contemporary Northern Indian population individually for the left and right sides. A total of 597 cadavers underwent postmortem multidetector computed tomography and subsequent medicolegal autopsy in our department between August 2021 and August 2022. Two hundred samples (100 males and 100 females) were randomly collected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Six linear anthropometric measurements of the scapula from either side were measured using the 3D volume-rendered technique by an electronic cursor. Each anthropometric measurement showed a significant difference between males and females (p < 0.05). Regression analysis was applied to match the taken measurements against stature. The accuracy to predict stature ranged from 3.99 to 4.94 cm for males and from 4.49 to 5.27 cm for females, respectively. Left-sided measurements were better predictors of stature than the right side in both genders. The results of this study indicate that scapular measurements could be useful to estimate the stature of Northern Indian individuals, particularly in scenarios of disaster victim identification lacking long bones, which are considered to be better predictors to date.

Aportaciones y avances de la genética forense en los sucesos con víctimas múltiples / Contributions and advances of forensic genetics in mass fatality incidents

La identificación de los afectados por un suceso con víctimas múltiples es una prioridad por razones humanitarias y legales. La genética forense juega un importante papel en estas situaciones que, por su complejidad, a menudo se convierten en un reto para los distintos profesionales implicados. El establecimiento de guías y recomendaciones facilita el seguimiento de protocolos estandarizados que permiten garantizar la fiabilidad del resultado final de la identificación. Así mismo, los avances en la genética forense contribuyen a agilizar la respuesta, aportando nuevas estrategias de análisis y herramientas de tipo bioinformático. Con este artículo, se pretende ofrecer una visión general de cómo la genética forense y sus avances pueden contribuir en estas situaciones, así como algunas claves para entender la labor de los laboratorios de genética forense en la identificación de cadáveres en sucesos con víctimas múltiples. (AU)

Disaster victim identification is crucial for humanitarian and legal reasons. Forensic genetics plays an important role in these situations which often become a challenge for the different professionals involved due to their complexity. The establishment of guidelines and recommendations makes it easier to follow standardized protocols that make it possible to guarantee the reliability of the identification final result. Likewise, advances in forensic genetics contribute to speeding up the response, providing new analysis strategies and bioinformatic tools. This article aims to provide an overview of how forensic genetics and its advances can contribute in these situations, as well as some keys to understanding the work of forensic genetics laboratories in the identification of corpses in events with multiple victims. (AU)

Analysis of smiling photograph; Operation US-Bangla Air Crash.

Human identification may be difficult when there is no antemortem data available. A photograph of the deceased may be valuable in such cases. Digital advancement and inclusion in the lives of ordinary people makes it easier to retrieve clear, high-resolution photos from social media accounts and other places. This paper describes three cases of forensic dental identification from a US-Bangla plane crash in Nepal in which a charred body was positively identified from a smiling photograph provided by the deceased's family. Each case is unique and their identification rests on the availability of pre- and post-mortem information. Thus, the number of concordant points may vary from single to multiple; there is no defined criteria for minimum number of concordance for a positive dental identification.

Dental Hygiene and Dental Assistant Students' Simulated DVI Radiographic Match Accuracy: A pilot study.

Purpose Allied dental health care professionals have served on disaster victim identification (DVI) teams; however, the literature is void of statistical measures regarding transferable skills and disaster preparedness. The purpose of this study was to assess second year dental hygiene and dental assistant students' match accuracy for simulated DVI radiographs and compare the match accuracy between the student groups.Methods Five patient cases were chosen at random to retrospectively collect sets of digital bitewing radiographs from two time periods. The five retrospectively selected sets of images served as simulated antemortem (AM) and postmortem (PM) radiographs. A convenience sample of second year dental hygiene and dental assistant students from two institutions (n=48) were invited to participate in this IRB-exempt descriptive observational study. The previously selected AM and PM images were randomly mismatched, and participants were asked to visually compare the image sets and indicate the matches using a drag and drop feature in an electronic survey instrument. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data; the significance level was set at α=0.05.Results A total of 41 dental hygiene and dental assistant students agreed to participate for a response rate of 85.4%. Eighty-five percent of the participants accurately matched five out of five sets while the remaining 15% accurately matched three out of five sets. A one-sample binomial proportion test revealed that 80% of the participants were able to match at least four out of five sets (p<0.001). Dental hygiene students demonstrated increased matching performance as compared to dental assisting students (p=0.013).Conclusion Both dental hygiene and dental assistant students demonstrated transferable DVI skills to accurately match simulated AM and PM radiographs. Future research is needed in a larger sample to develop and assess best practices of DVI training to build on existing skills for allied dental health care professionals.

Re-examining so-called 'secondary identifiers' in Disaster Victim Identification (DVI): Why and how are they used?

Disaster victim identification (DVI) refers to the identification of multiple deceased persons following an event that has a catastrophic effect on human lives and living conditions. Identification methods in DVI are typically described as either being primary, which include nuclear genetic markers (DNA), dental radiograph comparisons, and fingerprint comparisons, or secondary, which are all other identifiers and are ordinarily considered insufficient as a sole means of identification. The aim of this paper is to review the concept and definition of so-called 'secondary identifiers" and draw on personal experiences to provide practical recommendations for improved consideration and use. Initially, the concept of secondary identifiers is defined and examples of publications where such identifiers have been used in human rights violation cases and humanitarian emergencies are reviewed. While typically not investigated under a strict DVI framework, the review highlights the idea that non-primary identifiers have proven useful on their own for identifying individuals killed as a result of political, religious, and/or ethnic violence. The use of non-primary identifiers in DVI operations in the published literature is then reviewed. Because there is a plethora of different ways in which secondary identifiers are referenced it was not possible to identify useful search terms. Consequently, a broad literature search (rather than a systematic review) was undertaken. The reviews highlight the potential value of so-called secondary identifiers but more importantly show the need to scrutinise the implied inferior value of non-primary methods which is suggested by the terms "primary" and "secondary". The investigative and evaluative phases of the identification process are examined, and the concept of "uniqueness" is critiqued. The authors suggest that non-primary identifiers may play an important role in providing leads to formulating an identification hypothesis and, using the Bayesian approach of evidence interpretation, may assist in establishing the value of the evidence in guiding the identification effort. A summary of contributions non-primary identifiers may make to DVI efforts is provided. In conclusion, the authors argue that all lines of evidence should be considered because the value of an identifier will depend on the context and the victim population. A series of recommendations are provided for consideration for the use of non-primary identifiers in DVI scenarios.

Technical note: A mobile collaborative workspace to assist forensic experts in disaster victim identification scenarios.

Integrated approaches to disaster victim identification (DVI) management have led to a need for technologies to improve interaction among parties involved in post-mortem (PM) and ante-mortem (AM) data collection through better communication and coordination. Mobile Forensic Workspace© (MFW) is a collaborative mobile system that not only facilitates the systematic collection of high-quality data, but also allows DVI professionals to coordinate activities and exchange data through secure real-time communication at major disaster scenarios in accordance with security, privacy and legal protocols. MFW is adaptable to any communication format (text, voice calls, photographs, etc.) and is dynamically self-reconfigurable when connectivity problems arise. It also allows data integration and backup through secure communication channels between local and remote servers. The feasibility of the system has been demonstrated through implementation of MFW on the iOS platform for iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad terminals. A further strength of MFW is that it provides out-of-the-box support for INTERPOL DVI forms. The application of information and communication technologies for DVI was shown to be useful in improving DVI management by enhancing the quality of data collection and enabling non-Internet dependent real-time data sharing and communication.