[Medical practice in Ancient Greece : The orthopaedic and trauma surgery case reports of the Hippocratic Corpus]. / Medizinische Praxis im alten Griechenland : Die orthopädischen und unfallchirurgischen Fallberichte des Corpus Hippocraticum.

OBJECTIVES: Which theoretical and practical competences do the orthopaedic and trauma surgery reports of the Hippocratic Corpus reveal? MATERIALS: The 431 Hippocratic case histories have been studied for reports and communication on diagnostics, therapy and prognosis of orthopaedic diseases and traumatic lesions. RESULTS: The seven books of the Hippocratic "Epidemics" describe a total of 26 patients with orthopaedic diseases and traumatic lesions. In the field of orthopaedic diseases, arthritis, myo- and tenopathia and gangrene play a prominent role, among the consequences of injury the fracture of the skull (n = 10) is in first place. Mainly individuals, but also groups of patients are reported. The clients' information on the course of the disease was often cautious. Diagnostics were limited to inspection and palpation. In addition to the measures of conservative treatment, four trepanations are described. The majority of traumatic brain lesions resulted in death. DISCUSSION: The Hippocratic doctor was faced with a variety of orthopaedic disases and traumatic lesions. Within the case reports, the subjective complaints, the objective findings and the course of the treatment are described in detail. Among the ailments of the musculoskeletal system, spinal disorders, especially hypercyphosis and scoliosis play an important role. The variety of reduction techniques reported suggests that most of the fractures detected were dislocated. Post-traumatic tetanus can be readily identified in several followup observations due to the development of opisthotonus. No other surgical intervention is discussed by Hippocrates as often and as variously as trepanation. It can be concluded with some certainty that perforating injuries of the skull were a common challenge in the life of a surgeon of classic antiquity.

Piagetian Theory and the Psychogenetic Development of Humankind Throughout History. Towards a General Theory of the Human Being.

J. Piaget wanted to study children to find a key to understanding history of mind, culture, science, and philosophy. The new theory program, called the structural-genetic theory program, developed by the author of this article, is an off-spring of Piagetian theory and follows Piaget's main idea concerning the study of parallels between ontogenetic and historical developments. It maintains the full identity of the child's psyche and that of the adult archaic human being concerning traits and features of the preoperational stage and partially the concrete operational stage, thereby evidencing the total sally of the formal operational stage in the minds of archaic people. The identity of the stage structures is not partially given but rather entirely and implies even the smallest details. The article exemplifies this identity concerning several central issues, such as logic, physical understanding, categories such as causality and chance, animism, personification of plants and animals, belief in magic, metamorphosis, ghosts, and understanding of dreams and myths. Accordingly, there is no difference between ontogenetic stages and the psychogenetic development of humankind throughout history. Historically, humankind has gone through the same stages as children do. The new theory program presents the fundamental theory of the human being as he or she existed in history and peopled archaic, ancient, and medieval societies. Consequently, the world history of culture, mind, worldview, politics, law, science, philosophy, morals, religion, and arts must be reconstructed in terms of stages, a task already accomplished by the new program, at least to a certain extent.

[Medical practice in classical Greece : The neurological and psychiatric case reports of the Hippocratic Corpus]. / Medizinische Praxis im klassischen Griechenland : Die neurologischen und psychiatrischen Fallberichte des Corpus Hippocraticum.

OBJECTIVE: Which theoretical and practical competences do the neurological and psychiatric case histories of the Hippocratic Corpus convey? MATERIAL AND METHODS: The 431 Hippocratic case histories have been studied for reports and communication on the diagnostics, treatment and prognosis of single persons and groups of patients suffering from neurological and psychiatric diseases. RESULTS: In the 7 books of the Hippocratic Epidemics, a total of 128 patients with neurological and psychiatric symptoms are described. Epidemic fever and its variants were the leading predisposing conditions and the main symptoms were delirium, coma, insomnia, headache, speech disorders and convulsions. A number of patients with phrenitis and opisthotonos are also reported. The majority of the sick persons were male, were teenagers or adults and 47 of them are mentioned by name. The patient's information about the course is often just as informative as the doctor's observations. Treatment was limited to physical and dietary measures. DISCUSSION: The Hippocratic physician diagnosed and attempted to treat a large number of neurological and psychiatric diseases. The often almost continuous observations of the patients led to astonishingly precise predictions of the course and the prospects of recovery. Numerous symptoms described in the case studies, including carphologia and opisthotonus, have entered the neurological vocabulary. The retrospective etiological analysis of the reports leads to the almost explicit identification of neurosyphilis and encephalitis lethargica. The therapeutic measures described by the author were, as the changeable course of the diseases shows, only of limited effectiveness despite a very differentiated application over time, both against the underlying diseases and the neurological and psychiatric complications.

[The urological case reports of the Hippocratic Corpus : Medical practice in classical Greece]. / Die urologischen Fallberichte des Corpus Hippocraticum : Medizinische Praxis im klassischen Griechenland.

OBJECTIVE: Which theoretical and practical competences do the urologic case histories of the Hippocratic Corpus convey? MATERIALS AND METHODS: The 431 Hippocratic case histories have been studied for reports and communication on diagnostic methods, treatment, and prognosis related to urologic diseases. RESULTS: Within the seven books of the Hippocratic Epidemics, a total of 69 patients with urologic symptoms are described; in 21 cases the urologic disease is dominant. The leading clinical signs were urine discoloration and urinary sediment, polyuria, testicular swelling and pain, hematuria, stranguria, anuria, and renal pain, the most frequent diseases were nephritis and urolithiasis. Most patients were men in juvenile and adult age; 33 sick persons are named. The statements of patients regarding the course of their illness were often sparse. Diagnostic tests were restricted to inspection and palpation. Otherwise, treatment was confined to conservative measures. The dietary decisions for treatment of nephritis were differentiated but nonuniform. CONCLUSION: The Hippocratic physician diagnosed and treated diseases of the urinary tract. Inflammatory conditions and traumatic lesions are described in detail. Highest priority was awarded to uroscopy. Nephritis was a widespread disorder und usually associated with other symptoms, above all fever. The urinary tract was often regarded as an indicator of physical and mental health. Conservative treatment measures dominate in the case reports.

[Medical practice in classical Greece : The dermatological case reports in the Hippocratic Corpus]. / Medizinische Praxis im klassischen Griechenland : Die dermatologischen Fallberichte des Corpus Hippocraticum.

OBJECTIVES: Which theoretical and practical competences do the dermatological case histories of the Hippocratic Corpus convey? MATERIALS: The 431 Hippocratic case histories have been studied for reports and communication on diagnostics, therapy and prognosis of individuals and groups of patients suffering from skin diseases. RESULTS: Within the seven books of the Hippocratic 'Epidemics', a total of 49 patients with dermatological symptoms are described; in 20 of these, skin disease was the leading suffering. The essential clinical signs were itching, red spots, blisters, pustules, aphthae, lichen, dandruff and hair loss. Most patients were male; one of the four women was pregnant, among the two children was a baby whose skin disease ended fatally. Eight patients were named. In addition, five waves of disease are reported, in the course of which the shape of the skin played an important role. The diagnostic workup was limited to inspection and palpation, but included the determination of the level of suffering. The follow-up checks often extended over months. Mostly, plasters and compresses with grain flour were primarily used for treatment. CONCLUSION: The Hippocratic doctor observed and described a large number of skin lesions and attempted to classify them in the differential diagnosis. In addition to changes in the color and tension of the skin, numerous lesions-for which the names are still often used in modern dermatology-are also described in detail. The skin manifestations associated with fever and abdominal symptoms are counted among the epidemic diseases. The condition of the skin was often regarded as an indicator of general health. In the case reports, conservative treatment adapted to the development of the disease dominated. In desperate cases, bloodletting was chosen as a last resort.

[Surgical case reports in the Corpus Galenicum]. / Chirurgische Fallbeschreibungen im Corpus Galenicum.

BACKGROUND: The case histories in the writings of the Greco-Roman physician Galen of Pergamum have so far been interpreted primarily in literary and sociohistoric terms. Analysis focused on the medical aspects is still incomplete. QUESTION: Which surgical competences do the Galenic case reports communicate? MATERIAL AND METHOD: The 358 Galenic case histories were studied for anamnestic, diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic statements on surgical diseases. RESULTS: In 38 case reports surgical disorders are presented. Most of the histories are found in the works On the composition of drugs according to kind (12), On the affected parts (5) and On anatomical procedures (3). Both individual persons, including many children and several women, and groups of patients are reported. The descriptions do not follow a fixed structure. The texts are governed by information on the anamnesis and catamnesis, the results of the physical examination and the description of the chosen intervention. The author has repeatedly combined the description of an individual case with theoretical remarks. The majority of the reports come from wound, visceral and thoracic surgery. The most common surgical diseases Galen encountered were soft tissue injuries of the extremities, traumatic thoracic and abdominal lesions, abscesses, peripheral nerve lesions, dislocations and tumors of the female breast. Gladiator wounds played an important role. In most cases, Galen was the attending physician. Second-hand medical histories are also told. Surgical interventions were regularly combined with conservative treatment methods, albeit in varying orders. DISCUSSION: The case reports cover much of the spectrum of surgical diseases mentioned by Galen. The differential diagnostic and differential therapeutic reflections are the most original element in terms of content. The remarks on the choice of treatment show that to care for surgical diseases the physician of antiquity sometimes used subtle interventions on the chest and abdominal wall, on the extremities and on the vessels. The accompanying drug treatment is described in great detail.

On the history of neuroscience research in the Max Planck Society, 1948-2002-German, European, and transatlantic perspectives: Introduction.

To further our understanding of the transformations of the modern, globalized world, historical research concerning the twentieth century must acknowledge the tremendous impact that science and technology exerted and continue to exert on political, economic, military, and social developments. To better comprehend a global history of science, it is also crucial to include Germany's most prominent research organization: The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (MPG). Despite the existence of numerous institute chronicles and selected anniversary editions, the overall development of the MPG-historically situated in more than 80 institutes with more than 250 research service departments (of which approximately 50 have reached into the wider field of neuroscience, behavioral science, and cognitive science)-it remains largely terra incognita from a scholarly perspective. From June 2014 to December 2022, the Research Program on the History of the Max Planck Society (GMPG) opened previously neglected vistas on contemporary history, academic politics, and economic developments of the Federal Republic of Germany and its international relations by raising questions such as these: Who were the key scientific actors? In what networks did they work? In what fields had the MPG paved the way for cutting-edge innovations? What were its successes and where did it fail? In what ways were its institutional structures connected to its scientific achievements and its historical legacies? What is specific about the MPG in comparison to other national institutions in and outside of Germany? These questions relate to the emerging interdisciplinary field of the neurosciences. They refer in part to the MPG's founding years-from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s-which faced significant challenges for a "normalization process" in biomedical research and the burgeoning field of neuroscience. This special issue of the Journal of the History of the Neurosciences is composed of an introduction, five articles, and two neuroscience history interviews. It reflects on the multifold dimensions of behavioral psychology, brain research, and cognitive science developments at the MPG since its beginning through the reopening of several former Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes. After World War II, the extra-university research society-named in honor of physicist Max Planck (1858-1947)-was eventually established in the British Occupation Zone in 1946, in the American Zone in 1948, and in 1949 in the French Zone, unifying the MPG as the successor umbrella organization of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes (KWIs), now transformed into Max Planck Institutes. Chronologically, the research period covered in this special issue ranges from 1948 to 2002.

[The Greek-Roman physician Galen of Pergamum and his neurological case histories]. / Der griechisch-römische Arzt Galen von Pergamon und seine neurologischen Fallberichte.

BACKGROUND: The case histories in the writings of Galen of Pergamum have so far been interpreted primarily in literary and socio-historic terms. The analysis focused on the medical aspects is still incomplete. QUESTION: Which neurological competences do the galenic case reports communicate? MATERIAL AND METHODS: The 400 galenic case histories were studied for anamnestic, clinical, therapeutic, and prognostic statements on neurological and psychiatric diseases. RESULTS: In about every tenth case report, neurological and/or psychiatric disorders are discussed. Most of them are found in the works Anatomical procedures, On the affected parts and Method of Healing. Both individual patients and patient groups are reported. The author calls prominent patients by name. The descriptions do not follow a fixed structure. The texts are governed by information on the anamnesis and catamnesis and the results of the physical examination. The author has repeatedly combined the description of the individual cases with theoretical remarks. The most common diseases of the nervous system Galen encountered were traumatic palsy, paresthesia, incontinence, rabies, epilepsy, depression and insanity. Symptoms associated with fever and epidemics also played an important role. In most cases, Galen was the attending physician. Secondhand medical histories are also told. The most invasive treatment procedure was trepanation. DISCUSSION: The case reports cover much of the spectrum of diseases of the nervous system mentioned by Galen. The doctor-patient tales are the most ingenious element in terms of style and content. The often sparse statements on the choice of treatment show that the ancient doctor hardly had any specific measures available for patients suffering from neurologic diseases with the exception of the rarely indicated and practiced surgical interventions.

Representaciones Sociales de la Historia Universal: Posicionamientos Diferenciales en Función de la Ideología Política, Religiosidad y Nacionalismo en una Muestra Argentina / Representations Social Representations of Universal History: Differential Positioning at the Service of Political Ideology, Religiosity and Nationalism in the Argentinian Context / Representações Sociais da História Universal: Posicionamentos Diferenciados em função da Ideologia Política, da Religiosidade e do Nacionalismo numa Amostra Argentina

Con el objetivo de analizar las representaciones sociales de la historia a través de los sentimientos que despiertan 24 personajes de la historia universal, se administró una versión modificada del cuestionario construido por Liu et al. (2005) a una muestra intencional (N=369) de Argentina (55.7% mujeres, Medad=36.20, DEedad=11.16). El análisis de con glomerados no jerárquico arrojó 4 grupos en función de la religiosidad, el nacionalismo y el posicionamiento ideológico de los participantes. Por su parte, del análisis de clúster jerárquico, en función de los sentimientos hacia los personajes, se desprendieron 2 conglomerados denominados héroes y villanos. Los personajes religiosos y políticos son los que mayor disenso suscitan.

In order to analyze the social representations of history through the feelings elicited by 24 world history figures, a modified version of the questionnaire constructed by Liu et al. (2005) was applied to an intentional sample (N AGE=369) from Argentina (55.7% women, Mage =36.20, SD =11.16). The non-hierarchical cluster analysis identified 4 groups related to the religiosity, nationalism, and the ideological positioning of participants. On the other hand, a second hierarchical cluster analysis based on the feelings toward the historical figures identified 2 clusters, named heroes and villains. The religious and political figures are those that call for the most dissent.

Com o objetivo de analisar as representações sociais da história por meio dos sentimentos que 24 personagens da história universal despertam, aplicou-se uma versão modificada do questionário construído por Liu et al. (2005) a uma amostra intencional (N=369) da Argentina (55.7% mulheres, Midade=36.20, DEidade=11.16). A análise de conglomerado não hierárquico proporcionou quatro grupos em função da religiosidade, do nacionalismo e do posicionamento ideológico dos participantes. Por sua vez, da análise de cluster hierárquico, em função dos sentimentos pelos personagens, desprenderam-se dois conglomerados denominados heróis e vilões. Os personagens religiosos e políticos são os que maior divergência apresentaram.