Shapes of pathology / As formas da patologia

The shape is one of the key features of a lesion and a pathologist must be able to identify and interpret these forms in the context of any gross and microscopic changes. One of the principles of adult learning is to engage the learner with previously understood information. If, when presenting material that is new, a connection with something the student already has familiarity with, the learning process is accelerated. As the learners are already familiar with shapes they have encountered throughout their pre-pathology learning, these can be used to hasten the incorporation and understanding of lesions. This paper describes various shapes that are used in describing lesions in veterinary pathology.(AU)

A forma é uma das principais características de uma lesão. Um patologista deve ser capaz de identificar e interpretar essas formas no contexto de quaisquer alterações macroscópicas ou microscópicas. Um dos princípios da aprendizagem de adultos é envolver o aluno com informações previamente compreendidas. Se, ao apresentar um material novo, se estabelece uma conexão com algo que o aluno já conhece, o processo de aprendizagem torna-se mais rápido e eficiente. Como os alunos já estão familiarizados com as formas que encontraram ao longo de sua aprendizagem pré-patologia, elas podem ser usadas para acelerar a incorporação e a compreensão das lesões. Este artigo descreve várias formas que são usadas na descrição de lesões em patologia veterinária.(AU)

Shapes of pathology

ABSTRACT: The shape is one of the key features of a lesion and a pathologist must be able to identify and interpret these forms in the context of any gross and microscopic changes. One of the principles of adult learning is to engage the learner with previously understood information. If, when presenting material that is new, a connection with something the student already has familiarity with, the learning process is accelerated. As the learners are already familiar with shapes they have encountered throughout their pre-pathology learning, these can be used to hasten the incorporation and understanding of lesions. This paper describes various shapes that are used in describing lesions in veterinary pathology.

RESUMO: A forma é uma das principais características de uma lesão. Um patologista deve ser capaz de identificar e interpretar essas formas no contexto de quaisquer alterações macroscópicas ou microscópicas. Um dos princípios da aprendizagem de adultos é envolver o aluno com informações previamente compreendidas. Se, ao apresentar um material novo, se estabelece uma conexão com algo que o aluno já conhece, o processo de aprendizagem torna-se mais rápido e eficiente. Como os alunos já estão familiarizados com as formas que encontraram ao longo de sua aprendizagem pré-patologia, elas podem ser usadas para acelerar a incorporação e a compreensão das lesões. Este artigo descreve várias formas que são usadas na descrição de lesões em patologia veterinária.

Shapes of pathology / As formas da patologia

The shape is one of the key features of a lesion and a pathologist must be able to identify and interpret these forms in the context of any gross and microscopic changes. One of the principles of adult learning is to engage the learner with previously understood information. If, when presenting material that is new, a connection with something the student already has familiarity with, the learning process is accelerated. As the learners are already familiar with shapes they have encountered throughout their pre-pathology learning, these can be used to hasten the incorporation and understanding of lesions. This paper describes various shapes that are used in describing lesions in veterinary pathology.(AU)

A forma é uma das principais características de uma lesão. Um patologista deve ser capaz de identificar e interpretar essas formas no contexto de quaisquer alterações macroscópicas ou microscópicas. Um dos princípios da aprendizagem de adultos é envolver o aluno com informações previamente compreendidas. Se, ao apresentar um material novo, se estabelece uma conexão com algo que o aluno já conhece, o processo de aprendizagem torna-se mais rápido e eficiente. Como os alunos já estão familiarizados com as formas que encontraram ao longo de sua aprendizagem pré-patologia, elas podem ser usadas para acelerar a incorporação e a compreensão das lesões. Este artigo descreve várias formas que são usadas na descrição de lesões em patologia veterinária.(AU)

A taste of pathology / Sabores da patologia

Adult learning, or andragogy, provides a novel way of appreciating using food analogies as an effective learning tool in veterinary pathology. Facilitation of adult learning requires that new concepts be presented in a way that draws on the learner's experience. Because veterinary students will have had considerable experience with a plethora of food items prior to enrolling in a pathology course, food analogies can provide an easy conduit for incorporating key learning concepts regarding veterinary pathology. In this paper, many of these analogies are presented, along with the mechanisms responsible for each of the characteristic lesions, in the hopes that their usefulness in the classroom can be highlighted to create a more engaging and facilitated learning environment.(AU)

A aprendizagem de adultos, ou andragogia, é uma nova maneira de apreciar o uso de analogias de alimentos como uma ferramenta eficaz no aprendizado em patologia veterinária. A facilitação da aprendizagem de adultos requer que novos conceitos sejam apresentados de uma forma que se baseie na experiência do aluno. Como os estudantes de medicina veterinária já terão sido expostos a um número considerável de tipos de alimentos antes de se matricularem na disciplina de patologia, as analogias de alimentos podem fornecer um ótimo conduto para incorporar os conceitos-chave na aprendizagem da patologia veterinária. Neste artigo, muitos dessas analogias são apresentadas juntamente com os mecanismos responsáveis por cada uma das lesões características, na esperança de que sua utilidade na sala de aula possa ser destacada para criar um ambiente de aprendizado mais envolvente e favorável.(AU)

A taste of pathology / Sabores da patologia

Adult learning, or andragogy, provides a novel way of appreciating using food analogies as an effective learning tool in veterinary pathology. Facilitation of adult learning requires that new concepts be presented in a way that draws on the learner's experience. Because veterinary students will have had considerable experience with a plethora of food items prior to enrolling in a pathology course, food analogies can provide an easy conduit for incorporating key learning concepts regarding veterinary pathology. In this paper, many of these analogies are presented, along with the mechanisms responsible for each of the characteristic lesions, in the hopes that their usefulness in the classroom can be highlighted to create a more engaging and facilitated learning environment.(AU)

A aprendizagem de adultos, ou andragogia, é uma nova maneira de apreciar o uso de analogias de alimentos como uma ferramenta eficaz no aprendizado em patologia veterinária. A facilitação da aprendizagem de adultos requer que novos conceitos sejam apresentados de uma forma que se baseie na experiência do aluno. Como os estudantes de medicina veterinária já terão sido expostos a um número considerável de tipos de alimentos antes de se matricularem na disciplina de patologia, as analogias de alimentos podem fornecer um ótimo conduto para incorporar os conceitos-chave na aprendizagem da patologia veterinária. Neste artigo, muitos dessas analogias são apresentadas juntamente com os mecanismos responsáveis por cada uma das lesões características, na esperança de que sua utilidade na sala de aula possa ser destacada para criar um ambiente de aprendizado mais envolvente e favorável.(AU)

A taste of pathology

ABSTRACT: Adult learning, or andragogy, provides a novel way of appreciating using food analogies as an effective learning tool in veterinary pathology. Facilitation of adult learning requires that new concepts be presented in a way that draws on the learners experience. Because veterinary students will have had considerable experience with a plethora of food items prior to enrolling in a pathology course, food analogies can provide an easy conduit for incorporating key learning concepts regarding veterinary pathology. In this paper, many of these analogies are presented, along with the mechanisms responsible for each of the characteristic lesions, in the hopes that their usefulness in the classroom can be highlighted to create a more engaging and facilitated learning environment.

RESUMO: A aprendizagem de adultos, ou andragogia, é uma nova maneira de apreciar o uso de analogias de alimentos como uma ferramenta eficaz no aprendizado em patologia veterinária. A facilitação da aprendizagem de adultos requer que novos conceitos sejam apresentados de uma forma que se baseie na experiência do aluno. Como os estudantes de medicina veterinária já terão sido expostos a um número considerável de tipos de alimentos antes de se matricularem na disciplina de patologia, as analogias de alimentos podem fornecer um ótimo conduto para incorporar os conceitos-chave na aprendizagem da patologia veterinária. Neste artigo, muitos dessas analogias são apresentadas juntamente com os mecanismos responsáveis por cada uma das lesões características, na esperança de que sua utilidade na sala de aula possa ser destacada para criar um ambiente de aprendizado mais envolvente e favorável.

Analogías verbales: un predictor de la habilidad lectura / Verbal Analogies: predictor of reading skill

Introducción. El conocimiento léxico del niño se evalúa con frecuencia con tareas de Vocabulario. Sin embargo, las analogías verbales es otra alternativa para valorar este desarrollo y se usa con menos frecuencia. Método: La presente investigación tiene como objetivo determina el valor pronóstico de Analogías verbales y compararlo con Vocabulario para explicar el rendimiento lector en niños escolares. Se seleccionó 100 niños entre 2º y 6º en una institución educativa de Cienfuegos, Cuba. Se aplicaron varias pruebas: Fluidez lectora en silencio, Analogías verbales y el WISC-R abreviado, conformado por el sub-test Cubos y Vocabulario. Resultados: La tarea de fluidez lectora mostró significativas correlaciones con Vocabulario (r = 0,60 p<0,01) y con Analogías verbales (r = 0,65 p<0,01). El análisis de regresión jerárquica indicó que Analogías verbales explica el 13% de la varianza de la tarea de lectura, mientras que Vocabulario no mostró efecto significativo cuando se controla el efecto de Analogía verbales. Conclusiones. Los mecanismos léxicos que subyacen en la compresión lectora son: inferencia de ideas y morfología de las palabras (seleccionar el significado de las palabras a través de la raíz de la palabra, sufijos y prefijos). Las tareas de Vocabulario son sensibles para conocer el uso del mecanismo morfología de las palabras, mientras que Analogías verbales posibilita valorar los dos mecanismos léxicos. En resumen, ambas tareas (Vocabulario y Analogías) son importantes para estimar la compresión lectora en niños escolares, sin embargo, el valor pronóstico recae con mayor peso en Analogías verbales.

Introduction. The children's lexical knowledge is frequently evaluated with tasks of Vocabulary. However, the verbal analogy is another alternative to value this development and it is used with less frequency. Method: The present investigation has as objective it determines the value predicted of Verbal Analogies and to compare it with Vocabulary to explain the reading performance in school children. It was selected 100 children between 2º and 6º in an educational institution of Cienfuegos, Cuba. Several tests were applied: Silence Fluency Reader Task, Verbal Analogies and the abbreviated WISC-R, conformed by subtest Cubes and Vocabulary. Results: The reading performance showed significant correlations with Vocabulary (r = 0,60 p <0,01) and with Verbal Analogies (r = 0,65 p <0,01). The analysis of hierarchical regression indicated that Verbal Analogy explain 58% of the variance of the reading task, while Vocabulary didn't show significant effect when verbal analogy control. Conclusions. The lexical mechanisms that underlie in the compression reader are: inference of ideas and morphology of the words (to select the significances of the words through the root of the word, suffixes and prefixes). The tasks of Vocabulary are sensitive to know the use of the mechanism morphology of the words, while verbal Analogies facilitate to value the two lexical mechanisms. In summary, both tasks (Vocabulary and Analogies) they are important to estimate the compression reader, however Verbal Analogy had bigger value predict.

Criterios para la eliminación de ítems de un test de analogías figurales / Criteria for eliminating items of a test of figural analogies

En el presente artículo se describen los pasos que permiten considerar la eliminación de dos de los reactivos de un Test de Analogías Figurales (TAF). Se explican las bases generales de su análisis psicométrico tanto desde la Teoría Clásica de Tests (TCT) como la Teoría de Respuesta al Ítem (TRI). Se detalla el proceso de eliminación de reactivos basado en la obtención de los índices de dificultad y discriminación de los ítems desde la TCT, así como el análisis de la unidimensionalidad. También se toman criterios basados en la estimación de los parámetros a, b y c de cada ítem según el Modelo Logístico de Tres Parámetros de la TRI, así como la determinación del ajuste de cada reactivo sobre la base de dicho modelo logístico. Se detallan las características desfavorables de algunos ítems del TAF y se discuten las decisiones que llevan al mencionado proceso de eliminación.

This paper describes the steps taken to eliminate two of the items in a Test of Figural Analogies (TFA). The main guidelines of psychometric analysis concerning Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Item Response Theory (IRT) are explained. The item elimination process was based on both the study of the CTT difficulty and discrimination index, and the unidimensionality analysis. The a, b, and c parameters of the Three Parameter Logistic Model of IRT were also considered for this purpose, as well as the assessment of each item fitting this model. The unfavourable characteristics of a group of TFA items are detailed, and decisions leading to their possible elimination are discussed.

Especificación del algoritmo para un test adaptativo informatizado de analogías verbales / Algorithm specification for a computerized adaptive test of verbal analogies

Se presentan los pasos seguidos en el diseño de un Test Adaptativo Informatizado de Analogías Verbales. El algoritmo adaptativo se determinó teniendo en cuenta las características de un Banco de Ítems de Analogías Verbales construido a partir de la Teoría de Respuesta al Ítem, los objetivos de evaluación, la población por evaluar y las características del software. El Banco está compuesto por 64 ítems unidimensionales calibrados según el Modelo Logístico de Tres Parámetros, informativos en todo el rango del rasgo y libres de funcionamiento diferencial entre géneros. Se programó el algoritmo adaptativo con el FastTEST Professional Testing System utilizando las siguientes especificaciones: a) inicio aleatorio entre niveles levemente inferiores a la media del rasgo, b) estimación del rasgo por Máxima Verosimilitud Condicional, c) selección progresiva de los ítems con el Método de Máxima Información de Fisher y d) criterio mixto de finalización.

This paper presents the steps followed in the design of a Computerized Adaptive Test to measure Verbal Analogies. The adaptive algorithm was determined upon the characteristics of a Verbal Analogies’ Item Bank constructed on the basis of Item Response Theory, the assessment objectives, the studied population and software features. The Bank consists of 64 unidimensional items calibrated with the Three Parameter Logistic Model, which are informative throughout the entire latent trait’s range and free of differential item functioning between genders. The adaptive algorithm was programmed via FastTEST Professional Testing System using the following specifications:a) random start between levels slightly below average trait, b) Conditional Maximum Likelihood Trait Estimation, c) progressive items selection by Maximum Fisher Item Information, and d) combined stopping rule.

Analogías de figuras: Teoría y construcción de ítemes / Figural analogies: Theory and construction of items

Se describen las bases conceptuales y operacionales de los tests de resolución de problemas por analogía estableciendo énfasis en las analogías de figuras. Se expone brevemente la importancia del estudio de dicho constructo hipotético para el abordaje de la capacidad intelectual. Se citan lineamientos teóricos sobre el mismo y se describen las características y mecanismos cognitivos fundamentales implicados en la resolución de matrices de figuras. En cuanto a este último punto, se aborda la comprensión de las relaciones y correlatos entre relaciones figurales tomando el modelo de proporción A:B::C:D propio de la tradición psicométrica desde principios del Siglo XX. Se establecen además vínculos conceptuales con aportes de autores pertenecientes a la vertiente cognitiva de estudio del razonamiento analógico y con escuelas de la Psicología General. Se pretende brindar un marco ideal para la creación de matrices figurales de 2 x 2 que midan el constructo. Con el objetivo de evitar sesgos en la medición, se plantean seis sugerencias básicas puestas al servicio tanto de la confección de estos reactivos, como de su administración. Dichas sugerencias son las siguientes: (1) considerar el doble camino de resolución de la matriz, (2) desarrollar una estrategia unívoca de resolución, (3) tomar en cuenta n estrategias para generar nk ítemes, (4) crear ítemes a ser resueltos únicamente por la vía del razonamiento analógico, (5) consideraciones en cuanto a las opciones de respuesta y (6) consideraciones referidas a la administración.

This paper describes the conceptual and operational bases of analogical problem - solving tests, placing emphasis on figural analogies. The importance of the study of such a hypothetical construct to the understanding of intellectual capacity is briefly outlined. The significance of the construct in relation to mental development and individual maturation from childhood to adulthood is also explained in a concise way. Theoretical considerations about analogical reasoning are quoted and the fundamental characteristics and cognitive mechanisms involved in the resolution of figural matrix items are described. In this respect, the nature of relations and correlations between relations of figures is elucidated taking into account the A:B::C:D proportional model which has been researched by psychometrists since the beginning of the 20th Century. This model suggests the existence of two pairs of relations between elements, where element A is to element B as element C is to a missing element D (Figure 2). Items created on the basis of this structure usually contain given answers, only one of which is correct. On the other hand, linkages are established with contributions from experts defending the cognitive perspective of the study of analogical reasoning, and also with General Psychology schools like Gestalt and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence. Finally, an ideal framework for the creation of 2 x 2 figural matrices that can measure analogical reasoning is intended to be provided. With the purpose of reducing item bias, six essential suggestions for the preparation and administration of items are offered. These suggestions are: (1) the constructor should consider the double resolution pathway of a proportional analogy (horizontal as well as vertical, i.e. A:B::C:D and A:C::B:D). In doing so, the probability of generating non-controlled rules of analogical relation to one of these pathways will be reduced. These accidental rules correspond to resolution logics different from those chosen by the designer, therefore affecting item manipulation and control. (2) Strongly related to the latter, given that each rule or combination of rules creates one different resolution strategy, each proportional analogy item should incorporate only one of these strategies to be applied horizontally as well as vertically. (3) Given that one or more rules may be used for the same item, a few rules are more than enough to prepare a large group of strategies and, therefore, a large item bank. Also, it is possible to take into account n strategies to produce nk items, being k the number of items apparently different from each other that nevertheless share the same resolution strategy. (4) Items that can be solved by applying ways of reasoning different from those of the proportional analogies should not be constructed. For instance, the designer should not allow superficial comparisons among some matching attributes of the item as a problem solving method, since this procedure does not require the consideration of the whole matrix structure (Gestalt's) which should serve as a basis for the analogical reasoning task. Therefore, pairing analogies should be rejected as they allow for this kind of resolution pathways (e.g. matching circle C with circle D2 in the 4th item of Figure 2, without taking into account the other matrix figures). (5) Alternative responses should contain one clearly correct answer to be discovered by using only analogical reasoning; wrong answers should not replace the correct one just because they are more appropriate considering alternative non-pretended ways of reasoning; all alternatives should share similarities and be distributed on a random basis. (6) The bias arising from administration conditions should be taken into account, including the possible verbal contamination during completion of this non-verbal test.

Why Humans Are Unique: Three Theories.

Three recent papers reject Darwin's claim that there is no fundamental difference between humans and animals. Each offers a unique theory of the difference. The first theory holds that although animals can perceive perceptual relations, humans alone can reinterpret the higher order relations between these relations. The theory offers analogical reasoning as an example of the uniquely human ability to deal with higher order relations between relations. However, chimpanzees are capable of analogical reasoning if the analogies are conceptually simple. The second theory proposes that human intelligence has far better developed social than physical competence-a claim that ignores, and is contradicted by 20 years of infant research showing that the infant's social and physical modules are almost equally developed. The third theory finds that whereas animal abilities are limited adaptations restricted to a single goal, human abilities are domain general and serve indeterminately many goals. This article rejects the first two theories and explains the unique character of domain-general human competence in terms of the interweaving of evolutionarily independent abilities-an interweaving found in humans only.