Os tênues limites entre o direito de viver e o direito de morrer: a perspectiva acadêmica, jurídica e bioética dos cuidados paliativos em animais de estimação / Els tènues límits entre el dret a viure i el dret a morir: la perspectiva acadèmica, legal i bioètica de les cures pal·liatives per a animal de compañía / Los tenues límites entre el derecho a vivir y el derecho a morir: la perspectiva académica, legal y bioética de los cuidados paliativos para animal de compañía / The tenuous limits between the right to live and the right to die: an academic, legal, and bioethics perspective of palliative care in pets

Os cuidados paliativos (CP) de animais de estimação constituem um tema emergente na Medicina Veterinária se caracterizando como uma alternativa terapêutica para a eutanásia precoce. Objetivou-se mapear a perspectiva, critérios, procedimentos e referenciais éticos e científicos dos CP e da eutanásia em animais de estimação, testando a hipótese de diferenças nas perspectivas da eutanásia e dos CP, bem como entre os cenários nacional e internacional. Para tal, realizou-se uma revisão bibliográfica integrativa da produção científica e um recorte de análise jurisprudencial a respeito dos reflexos jurídicos na atividade médico-veterinária. A revisão integrativa resultou em 535 artigos, dos quais 43 atenderam aos critérios de inclusão, acrescida de 800 ementas, as quais 30% foram relativas a ações indenizatórias contra serviços e médicos veterinários. Os dados obtidos, sob o recorte proposto na pesquisa, permitiram caracterizar a abordagem científica dos CP e da eutanásia, bem como lançar trilhas interpretativas de como os aspectos funcionais e perspectivas de aplicação podem subsidiar as decisões da equipe médica veterinária e dos responsáveis pelos animais. Contudo, para superação das limitações e a consolidação das potencialidades dos CP se faz necessário um esforço multidimensional, incluindo a esfera normativa, técnica, social e ética.Vislumbra-se o acolhimento da questão nas pautas da Bioética sugerindo que seja performada no espaço multidisciplinar do Comitê de Bioética Hospitalar Veterinário, com intuito de auxiliar na deliberação de decisões conflituosas, considerando o direito de proporcionar uma vida digna ao animal e, consequentemente, mitigando vulnerabilidades comprometedoras do direito de viver e de morrer.(AU)

Los cuidados paliativos (CP) de las mascotas es un tema emergente en medicina veterinaria que constituye una alternativa terapéutica para la eutanasia temprana. Nuestro objetivo fue avaluar la perspectiva, los criterios, los procedimientos y las referencias éticas y científicas de los CP y la eutanasia en las mascotas, probando la hipótesis de las diferencias en las perspectivas de la eutanasia y los CP, así como entre los escenarios nacionales e internacionales. Con este fin, se realizó una revisión bibliográfica integradora de la producción científica y un recorte del análisis jurisprudencial de los reflejos legales en la actividad médica veterinaria. La revisión integradora dio como resultado 535 artículos, delos cuales 43 cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión, más 800 resúmenes de procesos, que el 30% estaban relacionados con acciones de indemnización contra servicios veterinarios y médicos. Los datos obtenidos, bajo el recorte propuesto en la investigación, se permiten caracterizar el enfoque científico de CP y eutanasia, así como lanzar senderos interpretativos de cómo los aspectos funcionales y las perspectivas de aplicación pueden subsidiar las decisiones del equipo médico veterinario y aquellos responsables de animales. Sin embargo, para superar las limitaciones y la consolidación de las potencialidades de CP, se requiere un esfuerzo multidimensional que incluya la esfera normativa, técnica, social y ética. Se vislumbra la recepción del problema en la agenda de la bioética, lo que sugiere que se realiza en el espacio multidisciplinario del Comité de Bioética del Hospital Veterinario para ayudar en la deliberación de las decisiones de conflicto considerando el derecho a proporcionar una vida digna al animal y, en consecuencia, mitigando las vulnerabilidades comprometedoras del derecho a vivir y morir.(AU)

Palliative care (PC) of pets is an emerging theme in veterinary medicine constituting a therapeutic alternative for early euthanasia. Our objective was to map of the perspective, criteria, procedures and ethical and scientific references of PC and euthanasia in pets, testing the hypothesis of differences in the perspectives of euthanasia and PC, as well as between the national and international scenarios. Thus, an integrative bibliographic review of scientific production and a cut of jurisprudential analysis of legal reflexes in veterinary medical activity was performed. The integrative review resulted in 535 articles, of which 43 complied with the inclusion criteria, agree with 800 actions, which 30% were related to indemnity actions against veterinary services. The data obtained,under the profile proposed in the research, allowed to characterize the scientific approach of PC and euthanasia, as well as launch interpretative trails of how functional aspects and prospects of application can subsidize the decisions of the veterinary medical team and those responsible for animals. However, to overcome the limitations and the consolidation of PC potentialities, a multidimensional effort is required including the normative, technical, social and ethical sphere. We discern the reception of the issue in the agenda of bioethics suggesting that it is performed in the multidisciplinary space of the veterinary hospital bioethics committee to assist in the deliberation of conflict decisions considering the right to provide a dignified life to the animal, and consequently, mitigating compromising vulnerabilities of the right to live and die.(AU)

On the Legal Status of Human Cerebral Organoids: Lessons from Animal Law.

This paper will ask whether the legal status presently afforded to nonhuman animals ought to influence regulatory debates concerning human cerebral organoids. The New York Courts recently refused to grant a writ of habeas corpus to Happy the Elephant as she was property rather than a legal person while at the same time accepting that she is a moral patient deserving of rights protection. An undesirable situation has therefore arisen in which the law holds a being with moral status to be incapable of benefitting from legal redress due to their legal status as property.The author argues that this is something that we ought to avoid when designing the regulatory framework which will govern the use of human cerebral organoids. Yet, a difference exists in that, whereas the judges already accept Happy is a moral patient, there is presently no consensus around the moral status of organoids. This paper will consider whether human cerebral organoids have passed the moral threshold of sentience. If they have, or are close to doing so, regulators ought to consider their legal status in advance so as to ensure that adequate limitations are placed on this usage so as to avoid unethical practices.

Using institutional ethnography to analyse animal sheltering and protection I: Animal protection work.

Animal protection laws exist at federal, provincial and municipal levels in Canada, with enforcement agencies relying largely upon citizens to report concerns. Existing research about animal protection law focuses on general approaches to enforcement and how legal terms function in the courts, but the actual work processes of animal law enforcement have received little study. We used institutional ethnography to explore the everyday work of Call Centre operators and Animal Protection Officers, and we map how this work is organised by laws and institutional polices. When receiving and responding to calls staff try to identify evidence of animal 'distress' as legally defined, because various interventions (writing orders, seizing animals) then become possible. However, many cases, such as animals living in deprived or isolated situations, fall short of constituting 'distress' and the legally mandated interventions cannot be used. Officers are also constrained by privacy and property law and by the need to record attempts to secure compliance in order to justify further action including obtaining search warrants. As a result, beneficial intervention can be delayed or prevented. Officers sometimes work strategically to advocate for animals when the available legal tools cannot resolve problems. Recommendations arising from this research include expanding the legal definition of 'distress' to better fit animals' needs, developing ways for officers to intervene in a broader range of situations, and more ethnographic research on enforcement work in jurisdictions with different legal systems to better understand how animal protection work is organised and constrained by laws and policies.

Portraying Animal Cruelty: A Thematic Analysis of Australian News Media Reports on Penalties for Animal Cruelty.

Media portrayals of animal cruelty can shape public understanding and perception of animal welfare law. Given that animal welfare law in Australia is guided partially by 'community expectations', the media might indirectly be influencing recent reform efforts to amend maximum penalties in Australia, through guiding and shaping public opinion. This paper reports on Australian news articles which refer to penalties for animal cruelty published between 1 June 2019 and 1 December 2019. Using the electronic database Newsbank, a total of 71 news articles were included for thematic analysis. Three contrasting themes were identified: (1) laws are not good enough; (2) laws are improving; and (3) reforms are unnecessary. We propose a penalty reform cycle to represent the relationship between themes one and two, and 'community expectations'. The cycle is as follows: media reports on recent amendments imply that 'laws are improving' (theme two). Due to a range of inherent factors in the criminal justice system, harsher sentences are not handed down by the courts, resulting in media report of 'lenient sentencing' (theme one). Hence, the public become displeased with the penal system, forming the 'community expectations', which then fuel future reform efforts. Thus, the cycle continues.

Spay/neuter laws as a debated approach to stabilizing the populations of dogs and cats: An overview of the European legal framework and remarks.

To reduce the (over) population of unwanted companion non human animals, namely dogs and cats. They are used to lower negative impacts on human societies and on the animals themselves, and opting for the neutering status is usually considered a demonstration of "responsible ownership." In Western countries, however, such provisions are not uniform and must increasingly be balanced with the recognition of animals as sentient beings with interests under the law. Furthermore, there is no consensus on whether routine neutering benefits both human and nonhuman parties, and the veterinary profession progressively claims the need for case-by-case management. Such premises make deciding how to manage companion animals' reproductive lives legally challenging. The current work examines the European legal framework for companion animal protection and animal legal status after providing a brief overview of the global problem of overpopulation. Subsequently, the author discusses the main legal approaches to controlling companion animal reproduction, in European countries. Remarks about the legally binding option and on alternative approaches are provided, while highlighting the persistent need for appropriate and coherent European legislation.

Protecting Canada's Lab Animals: The Need for Legislation.

Canada's current non-legislated oversight system for animal-based science not only fails to adequately incentivize the replacement of sentient animals as best scientific practice in any meaningful way, but also fails to adequately protect those animals bred, harmed, and killed in the name of science. In this paper, we outline the various shortcomings of the Canadian Council on Animal Care, and we highlight the need for Canada to move towards national legislation akin to that seen in other jurisdictions like the U.K. We conclude that while legislation alone cannot ensure the replacement of sentient animals in science, it appears to be a precondition for significant progress in animal protection and for the development and adoption of non-animal methods.

Should We Protect Animals from Hate Speech?

Laws against hate speech protect members of certain human groups. However, they do not offer protection to nonhuman animals. Using racist hate speech as our primary example, we explore the discrepancy between the legal response to hate speech targeting human groups and what might be called anti-animal or speciesist hate speech. We explore two sets of possible defences of this legal discrepancy drawn from the philosophical literature on hate speech-non-consequentialist and harm-based-and find both wanting. We thus conclude that, absent a compelling alternative argument, there is no in-principle reason to support the censure of racist hate speech but not the censure of speciesist hate speech.

Is One Health a Viable Strategy in Animal Health Litigation: Evidence from Civil Lawsuits in China.

Several litigation strategies are used to gain support from courts in order to protect animals. While the emerging litigation strategy themed in One Health stimulates judicial protection in the animal health sector, little is known about whether and how such strategies are supported by courts. In this article, we investigate how animal welfare litigation strategies influence judge's choices within their discretion. We argue that litigators equipped with the litigation strategy themed in One Health are placed in an advantageous position in animal health cases, but that this tendency varies markedly across zoonoses. Specifically, we suggest that litigators utilizing One Health's litigation strategy are associated with higher probabilities to win, whereas normal litigators are not. Further, we propose that litigators equipped with the One Health litigation strategy are awarded more damages from judges. We test and find support for our predictions using a cross sectional dataset of civil lawsuit cases centering on the animal health industry in Chinese mainland. Our findings indicate that courts indeed were persuaded by the One Health litigation strategy, even when bound by the discretion rules. At the same time, we suggest that for advocates who would like to litigate for animal welfare in the animal health sector, the litigation strategy themed in One Health might have potentially positive implications.

El principio de protección del bienestar animal: elementos para su configuración en el derecho chileno / Animal welfare protection principle: elements for its configuration in Chilean law

El derecho animal chileno se fundamenta en un principio, al cual llamamos principio de protección del bienestar animal. Este se obtiene por inducción, a partir del análisis sistemático de la normativa vigente, del estudio de los propósitos del legislador, y de la evolución que ha experimentado el derecho en este ámbito. Dicho principio cumple varias funciones relevantes, tales como la de servir de parámetro de interpretación, herramienta para colmar lagunas o solucionar antinomias, y como crítica del derecho vigente. Al mismo tiempo, también permite comprender mejor el tránsito que ha experimentado el ordenamiento chileno, el cual ha pasado desde un enfoque puramente propietario, hacia otro más centrado en la protección del bienestar animal (AU)

Chilean animal law is based on a principle, which we call the animal welfare protection principle. This principle is obtained by induction, from the systematic analysis of current regulations, the study of the legislator's purposes, and the evolution that law has undergone in this area. This principle fulfills several relevant functions, such as serving as a parameter of interpretation, a tool to solve antinomies, and as a criticism of current law. At the same time, it also allows us to better understand the transition that the Chilean system has experienced, which has gone from a purely proprietary approach to one more focused on the protection of animal welfare (AU)

El dret animal xilè es fonamenta al principi, al qual anomenem principi de protecció del benestar animal. Aquest s'obté per inducció, a partir de l'anàlisi sistemàtica de la normativa vigent, de l'estudi dels propòsits del legislador, i de l'evolució que ha experimentat el dret en aquest àmbit. Aquest principi compleix diverses funcions rellevants, tals com la de servir de paràmetre d'interpretació, eina per a satisfer llacunes o solucionar antinòmies, i com a crítica del dret vigent. Al mateix temps, també permet comprendre millor el trànsit que ha experimentat l'ordenament xilè, el qual ha passat des d'un enfocament purament propietari, cap a un altre més centrat en la protecció del benestar animal (AU)

Establishing Animal Welfare Rules of Conduct for the Portuguese Veterinary Profession-Results from a Policy Delphi with Vignettes.

Promoting animal welfare is one of the basic tenets of the veterinary profession and, in doing so, veterinarians are expected to abide to the highest legal and professional standards. However, the Portuguese veterinary code of conduct, established in 1994, largely overlooks animal welfare and fails to address issues such as the euthanasia or humane killing of animals. As part of a wider research aiming to revise the Portuguese veterinary code of conduct, a Policy Delphi study was conducted in late 2018, using a pre-validated three-round structure and vignette methodology, to explore the range of opinions and the level of agreement on end-of-life dilemmas and animal welfare rules of conduct of a purposeful sample of forty-one (out of seventy) Portuguese veterinarians. When faced with ethical vignettes involving end-of-life dilemmas, veterinarians were shown to privilege personal moral agency over legal obligations in order to defend the interests of stakeholders, namely of the animals. Most participants agreed that the suggested animal welfare rules of conduct reflected their own views on the subject (88%), in addition to representing a significant improvement in terms of regulatory standards (93%). We expect that this study will support regulation and policy-making by the Portuguese Veterinary Order and by veterinary representative bodies elsewhere.

Planning and Animal Welfare Law: Considering Why Planning Authorities in the Republic of Ireland Should have Regard to Animal Welfare Laws as Part of the Planning Process.

Animal welfare legislation routinely places obligations on owners of animals to take action to ensure that the welfare of the animal(s) is protected. Such legislation often requires animals to be sheltered by appropriate housing. Where facilities are built to provide animal housing it may be necessary to seek planning permission for the development, this is particularly an issue in relation to commercial facilities. The general approach of planning authorities in the Republic of Ireland is not to have regard to animal welfare matters at the planning stage. With reference to commercial dog breeding this paper considers the implications of the failure to have regard to animal welfare legislation during the planning process and the impact this can have on both animal welfare, but also the risks such an approach poses to the environment and public health.

Reflecting on 25 Years of Teaching Animal Law: Is it Time for an International Crime of Animal Ecocide?

2019 marked the 25th anniversary of the introduction of Animal Law to the law degree at Liverpool John Moores University. This article examines changes in the legal protection of animals during this time and the impact this will have on research and scholarship in the law relating to animals. We examine whether the overall international treatment of animals has improved and how far the approach to the Animal Law curriculum should be influenced by the growth in concerns around climate change. In this context, we examine the development of the law of ecocide and the extent to which it addresses concerns around animal welfare across the globe. We suggest that those involved in the development of Animal Law, ethics and policy might usefully engage in a new vision of ecocide, which incorporates a clearer notion of 'animal ecocide'. This new approach would enhance the international and national focus on animals in their own right, would recognise increasing knowledge of animal sentience and would move our responsibilities to them beyond anthropocentric approaches to environmental protection. We argue that the inclusion of a more specific reference to animal ecocide would contribute to the development of Animal Law and would lead to an enhanced relationship between Animal Law and attempts to protect the environment.

Incorporation of a stand-alone elective course in animal law within animal and veterinary science curricula.

Animal law is a burgeoning area of interest within the legal profession, but to date it seems to have received little attention as a discrete discipline area for animal and veterinary scientists. Given the increased focus on animal welfare both within curricula and among the public, it would be remiss of educators not to consider this allied subject, especially since it provides those tools necessary for implementing welfare standards and reducing cruelty. Recommended subject matter, teaching modality, and methods of assessment have been outlined in this article. Such a course should take a multidisciplinary approach and highlight contentious areas of animal law and trends within the wider societal framework of human-animal interactions. From a pedagogical standpoint, a variety of teaching methods and assessment techniques should be included. A problem-based learning approach to encourage the assimilation of facts and promote higher-order learning is favored. The purpose of this article is to provide some guidance on the structure of such a course based on the author's experience in teaching animal law to veterinary and animal science undergraduates in Australia.

Direito e experimentação animal: uma análise à luz da legislação ambiental / Right and animal experimentation: an analysis in the light of environmental law

A presente dissertação versa sobre os motivos e os meios capazes de tornar factível a abolição do uso de animais em experimentação. A existência de grupos contrários à exploração dos animais em pesquisa é secular, mas ao considerar aspectos jurídicos e morais vigentes, e relacioná-los aos verdadeiros interesses que movem a prática vê-se a possibilidade de abolir a escravização de animais no Brasil com fulcro na Constituição Federal e na Lei de Crimes Ambientais. O argumento principal se funda no braço da Carta Magna que protege a vida animal e em dispositivo legal ambiental que admite a experimentação apenas quando da não existência de recursos alternativos. Verificar-se-á que determinada lei inconstitucional e seu decreto regulamentador, contrários aos avanços da nova compreensão trazida pela Lei Maior buscam dissolver os dispositivos protetivos e resguardar a referida atividade experimental, a qual impõe inúmeros sofrimentos aos animais. Conceitos como crueldade aos animais, benefício humano, recursos alternativos, bem-estar animal, morte humanitária, promoção à saúde, prevenção de doenças, doenças negligenciadas dentre outros igualmente importantes à percepção dos interesses econômicos que envolvem a prática da experimentação animal serão averiguados, a fim de permitir uma melhor compreensão das regras legais e morais, de modo a alargar o alcance da justiça que assim poderá ser concretizada, protegendo efetivamente animais humanos e não humanos.

This dissertation deals with the reasons and the means capable of making feasible the abolition of animal use in experimentation. The existence of groups against the animals use in research is secular, but when considering prevailing legal and moral aspects and relate them to the real interests that moves the practice to see the possibility of abolish the enslavement of animals in Brazil with the fulcrum Federal Constitution and the Law of Environmental Crimes. The main argument is based on the Magna Carta that protects the animal life, and environmental legal provision which allows the trial only when the absence of alternative resources. Will be examined that unconstitutional law and its regulatory, contrary to advances in new understanding brought by Major Law decree seeking to dissolve the protective devices and safeguard the experimental activity, which imposes countless suffering to animals. Concepts such as cruelty to animals, human benefit, alternative resources, animal welfare, humane death, health promotion, disease prevention, neglected diseases among others equally important to the perception of the economic interests that involves the practice of animal experimentation will be investigated, to enable a better understanding of the legal and moral rules, to extend the reach of justice, so that can take place effectively protecting human and nonhuman animals.

Protocol for expert report on animal welfare in case of companion animal cruelty suspicion / Protocolo de perícia em bem-estar animal para diagnóstico de maus-tratos contra animais de companhia

Animal welfare expert reports may support court decisions when animal abuse or maltreatment is suspected. The objective of this work is to adapt animal welfare assessment protocols to identify companion animal abuse. The proposed protocol includes four indicator categories: nutritional, comfort, health and behavioral. To reach the overall conclusion regarding the situation evaluated, the final decisions for each group of indicators, classified as inadequate, regular and adequate, must be integrated into a single result, which will be the final welfare degree. This protocol employs a simple integration method, based on thresholds for inclusion in each of the five animal welfare degrees reported as overall conclusion for the assessment: very low, low, regular, high or very high welfare. Low and very low degrees are considered non-acceptable and are reported as abuse or maltreatment. Regular welfare is considered acceptable if corrective measures are assured. High and very high degrees are considered desirable for animal welfare. The protocol allows differentiation of animal welfare status to better decide whether an animal is under abuse, maltreatment or negligence. We hope that the refinement of the recognition of crimes against animals, especially considering cases where no physical lesion is present, coupled with a standardized protocol will improve perception of animal suffering, facilitate the field work of those involved in this type of investigation, and offer a contribution to the improvement of animal welfare in our society through proper action and crime reduction.

As decisões judiciais sobre casos de maus-tratos contra animais podem ser subsidiadas por laudos de peritos em bemestar animal. O objetivo deste trabalho foi adaptar protocolos de diagnóstico de bem-estar animal para a identificação de maus-tratos contra animais de companhia. O protocolo é composto por quatro conjuntos de indicadores: nutricionais, de conforto, sanitários e comportamentais, os quais devem ser classificados em inadequados, regulares e adequados. As decisões finais para cada conjunto de indicadores devem ser integradas em um único resultado, o qual será o grau final de bem-estar. O protocolo utiliza uma forma de integração simplificada, baseada em limites para a inclusão em cada um dos cinco graus de bem-estar, descritos como: muito baixo, baixo, regular, alto e muito alto. Graus de bem-estar baixo e muito baixo são considerados inaceitáveis e devem ser descritos como maus-tratos. Grau de bem-estar regular é considerado aceitável se medidas corretivas forem asseguradas. Graus de bem-estar alto e muito alto são considerados desejáveis para o bem-estar animal. O protocolo permite a diferenciação do grau de bem-estar em escala compatível para a decisão em relação à ocorrência de maus-tratos. Esperamos que o refinamento das formas de identificação de crimes contra animais, especialmente nos casos nos quais não existem lesões físicas, juntamente com um protocolo padronizado, possam aprimorar a percepção do sofrimento animal, além de facilitar o trabalho de campo das pessoas envolvidas nestas investigações, oferecendo assim uma contribuição para incrementar o bem-estar animal, por meio de ações adequadas e de redução da criminalidade.

Policing Farm Animal Welfare in Federated Nations: The Problem of Dual Federalism in Canada and the USA.

In recent European animal welfare statutes, human actions injurious to animals are new "offences" articulated as an injury to societal norms in addition to property damage. A crime is foremost a violation of a community moral standard. Violating a societal norm puts society out of balance and justice is served when that balance is returned. Criminal law normally requires the presence of mens rea, or evil intent, a particular state of mind; however, dereliction of duties towards animals (or children) is usually described as being of varying levels of negligence but, rarely can be so egregious that it constitutes criminal societal injury. In instrumental justice, the "public goods" delivered by criminal law are commonly classified as retribution, incapacitation and general deterrence. Prevention is a small, if present, outcome of criminal justice. Quazi-criminal law intends to establish certain expected (moral) standards of human behavior where by statute, the obligations of one party to another are clearly articulated as strict liability. Although largely moral in nature, this class of laws focuses on achieving compliance, thereby resulting in prevention. For example, protecting the environment from degradation is a benefit to society; punishing non-compliance, as is the application of criminal law, will not prevent the injury. This paper will provide evidence that the integrated meat complex of Canada and the USA is not in a good position to make changes to implement a credible farm animal protection system.

The Need for the Introduction of Assessment Program of Good Animal Care and Use Facility / 한국실험동물학회지

The humane care and use of animals should be the prime concern and responsibility of all those individuals using animals for research, teaching or testing. The use of animals as experimental subjects in the 20th century has contributed to many important advances in scientific and medical knowledge. Although scientists have also developed non-animal models for research, these models often cannot completely mimic the complex human or animal body. Nevertheless, efforts to develop and use scientifically valid alternatives, adjuncts, and refinements to animal research should continue. Laboratory Animal Law that was prepared to improve the reliability and reproducibility of research data using laboratory animals also required an institutes to care and use animal in ways judged to be scientifically, technically, and humanely appropriate. The law introduced Assessment Program of Good Animal Care and Use Facility. The primary goal of the Assessment Program is to provide quality assurance for the care and use of experimental animals on a national basis. Although, an effective surveillance protects animals, promotes animal welfare and ensures the quality of science that uses animals, it is the responsibility of investigators to conduct animal experiment on the basis of the highest scientific, humane, and ethical principles. It is expected that the Program will accelerate the introduction of mind concerning humane and ethical animal experiment and will enhance animal well-being, the quality of biomedical research, and the advancement of biologic knowledge that is relevant to humans or animals.