Can mulch be effective in controlling exotic grasses and promoting natural regeneration in ecological restoration?

Mulching use in agriculture has been known since 1802 as the practice of spreading dry leaves and straw on the soil to prevent erosion and water loss. Our study evaluated the mulch effectiveness in the establishment of regenerating seedlings and its contribution to the control of exotic grasses. The studies were carried out in an ecological restoration area in the municipality of Itapira-SP. The treatment with mulching consisted in chemical desiccation with glyphosate herbicide application, keeping the dry grass on the ground. In the control treatment, after chemical weeding, the grass was removed with manual mowing, exposing the soil. Eight months after implantation, we sampled all regenerating seedlings in 100 plots of 50 x 50 cm in each treatment. We considered as seedlings all individuals of tree species less than 100 cm tall. We calculated richness, abundance, similarity, and the relationship of the frequency of seedlings to the height of the mulch. We sampled eight species with 42 seedlings, with only one not identified. The highest abundance and species richness were found in the treatment with mulch (n = 34 individuals; eight species), the most abundant being Schinus terebinthifoliaRaddi (14 individuals) followed by Solanum mauritianumScop. (11 individuals), and Platypodium elegansVog. (three individuals). The presence of exoticgrasses was lower in the plots of the mulching (13%) compared to the control treatment (67%). The highest frequency of seedlings was obtained with mulch height from 21 to 37 cm. We suggest that adaptive management practices, such as the use of the mulching technique, can be implemented in ecological restoration areas, because they favor the natural regeneration of native seedlings and can contribute to the control of exotic grasses, but the height of the layer must be controlled.(AU)

Fleshy fruit traits and seed dispersers: which traits define syndromes?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Fruit traits and their inter-relationships can affect foraging choices by frugivores, and hence the probability of mutualistic interactions. Certain combinations of fruit traits that determine the interaction with specific seed dispersers are known as dispersal syndromes. The dispersal syndrome hypothesis (DSH) states that seed dispersers influence the combination of fruit traits found in fruits. Therefore, fruit traits can predict the type of dispersers with which plant species interact. Here, we analysed whether relationships of fruit traits can be explained by the DSH. To do so, we estimated the inter-relationships between morphological, chemical and display groups of fruit traits. In addition, we tested the importance of each trait group defining seed dispersal syndromes. METHODS: Using phylogenetically corrected fruit trait data and fruit-seed disperser networks, we tested the relationships among morphological, chemical and display fruit traits with Pearson's correlations and phenotypic integration indices. Then, we used perMANOVA to test if the fruit traits involved in the analysis supported the functional types of seed dispersers. KEY RESULTS: Morphological traits showed strong intragroup relationships, in contrast to chemical and display traits whose intragroup trait relationships were weak or null. Accordingly, only the morphological group of traits supported three broad seed disperser functional types (birds, terrestrial mammals and bats), consistent with the DSH. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, our results give some support to the DSH. Here, the three groups of traits interacted in different ways with seed disperser biology. Broad functional types of seed dispersers would adjust fruit consumption to anatomical limitations imposed by fruit morphology. Once this anatomical filter is sovercome, seed dispersers use almost all the range of variation in chemical and display fruit traits. This suggests that the effect of seed dispersers on fruit traits is modulated by hierarchical decisions. First, morphological constraints define which interactions can actually occur; subsequently, display and composition determine fruit preferences.

Associated evolution of fruit size, fruit colour and spines in Neotropical palms.

Understanding how ecological interactions have shaped the evolutionary dynamics of species traits remains a challenge in evolutionary ecology. Combining trait evolution models and phylogenies, we analysed the evolution of characters associated with seed dispersal (fruit size and colour) and herbivory (spines) in Neotropical palms to infer the role of these opposing animal-plant interactions in driving evolutionary patterns. We found that the evolution of fruit colour and fruit size was associated in Neotropical palms, supporting the adaptive interpretation of seed-dispersal syndromes and highlighting the role of frugivores in shaping plant evolution. Furthermore, we revealed a positive association between fruit size and the presence of spines on palm leaves, bracteas and stems. We hypothesize that interactions between palms and large-bodied frugivores/herbivores may explain the evolutionary relationship between fruit size and spines. Large-bodied frugivores, such as extinct megafauna, besides consuming the fruits and dispersing large seeds, may also have consumed the leaves or damaged the plants, thus simultaneously favouring the evolution of large fruits and defensive structures. Our findings show how current trait patterns can be understood as the result of the interplay between antagonistic and mutualistic interactions that have happened throughout the evolutionary history of a clade.

The vascular flora and vegetation of Queimada Grande Island, São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil / Flora vascular e vegetação da Ilha Queimada Grande, São Paulo, sudeste do Brasil

Abstract Studies of the vegetation on islands off the coast of southeastern Brazil are still very scarce, despite their importance for assessing, managing, and conserving insular biodiversity. We present here a list of the vascular flora of Queimada Grande Island (QGI; 24°29′10″ S, 46°40′30″ W, 57 ha, 33.2 km from the coast) in southeastern Brazil and describe its phytophysiognomies. The island is covered mainly by Atlantic Forest (Dense Ombrophilous Forest), as well as with rock outcrop and anthropogenic vegetation with herbaceous-shrub phytophysiognomies. QGI showed relatively low species richness (S = 125) when compared to other Brazilian coastal islands. Herbaceous (52) and climbing species (31) predominated on QGI. The richest families were Fabaceae (11 species), Poaceae (9), and Apocynaceae, Asteraceae and Orchidaceae (8 species each). Most species (S = 112) are autochthonous from different phytophysiognomies of the southeastern Brazilian Atlantic Forest complex. Many species associated with anthropically disturbed areas (S = 26) can be found on QGI, including the invasive grass Melinis minutiflora. There was a slight predominance of zoochory (S = 50). We did not identify any species endemic to QGI. One of its species (Cattleya intermedia, Orchidaceae) is vulnerable at both national and regional levels, and another (Barrosoa apiculata, Asteraceae) is presumably extinct on the mainland in São Paulo State. The vascular flora of QGI originated from the mainland Atlantic Forest complex, following the pattern of other coastal islands in southeastern Brazil. The flora and vegetation of QGI reflect the combination of insular conditions, the small size of the island, habitat restriction, steep topography, incipient soils, and the past use of the area with the introduction of several foreign species. We recommend permanent monitoring of the vegetation cover of QGI and its management, in order to ensure the conservation of the local native biota.

Resumo Estudos sobre a vegetação de ilhas costeiras no sudeste do Brasil ainda são muito escassos, apesar de sua importância para a avaliação, manejo e conservação da biodiversidade insular. Nós apresentamos aqui uma lista da flora vascular da Ilha Queimada Grande (IQG; 24°29′10″ S, 46°40′30″ W, 57 ha, 33,2 km da costa), sudeste do Brasil, e descrevemos suas fitofisionomias. A ilha é recoberta principalmente por Floresta Atlântica (Floresta Ombrófila Densa), bem como por vegetação sobre afloramento rochoso e vegetação antrópica com fisionomias herbáceo-arbustivas. A IQG apresentou riqueza relativamente baixa (S = 125) comparada a de outras ilhas costeiras do Brasil. Espécies herbáceas (52) e trepadeiras (31) predominaram na IQG. As famílias mais ricas foram Fabaceae (11 espécies), Poaceae (9), Apocynaceae, Asteraceae e Orchidaceae (8 espécies cada). A maioria das espécies (S = 112) é autóctone de diferentes fitofisionomias do complexo da Floresta Atlântica do sudeste do Brasil. Muitas espécies associadas a áreas antropicamente alteradas (S = 26) são encontradas na IQG, incluindo a gramínea invasora Melinis minutiflora. Houve ligeira predominância de zoocoria (S = 50). Nós não identificamos espécies endêmicas para a IQG. Uma espécie (Cattleya intermedia, Orchidaceae) encontra-se vulnerável em nível nacional e estadual, e outra (Barrosoa apiculata, Asteraceae) está presumivelmente extinta no estado de São Paulo. A flora vascular da IQG originou-se no complexo da Floresta Atlântica continental, seguindo o padrão de outras ilhas costeiras do sudeste do Brasil. A flora e a vegetação da IQG refletem a combinação da condição insular, tamanho reduzido da ilha, restrição de habitat, topografia acidentada, solos incipientes e o uso pretérito da área com a introdução de várias espécies alóctones. Nós recomendamos o monitoramento permanente da vegetação da IQG e seu manejo, visando garantir a conservação da biota nativa local.

A sampling formula for ecological communities with multiple dispersal syndromes.

Over the past decade, the neutral theory of biodiversity has stirred up community assembly theory considerably by suggesting that stochasticity in the form of ecological drift is an important factor determining community composition and community turnover. The neutral theory assumes that all species within a community are functionally equivalent (the neutrality assumption), and therefore applies best to communities of trophically similar species. Evidently, trophically similar species may still differ in dispersal ability, and therefore may not be completely functionally equivalent. Here we present a new sampling formula that takes into account the partitioning of a community into two guilds that differ in immigration rate. We show that, using this sampling formula, we can accurately detect a subdivision into guilds from species abundance distributions, given ecological data about dispersal ability. We apply our sampling formula to tropical tree data from Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Tropical trees are divided depending on their dispersal mode, where biotically dispersed trees are grouped as one guild, and abiotically dispersed trees represent another guild. We find that breaking neutrality by adding guild structure to the neutral model significantly improves the fit to data and provides a better understanding of community assembly on BCI. Our findings are thus an important step towards an integration of neutral and niche theory.

Checklist of climbing plants in an Araucaria forest of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil / Florística de trepadeiras em uma floresta de Araucária do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

Climbing plants are remarkable components of forests, highly contributing for the diversity and dynamics of communities. Studies focusing on climbing plants are scarce and for many vegetation types little is known about climbing species composition and their traits relevant for dispersal and establishment. The focus of this study is to provide the first floristic inventory of climbing plants in an Araucaria forest of Brazil, describing the dispersal syndromes and climbing mechanisms of species and comparing these traits and species composition patterns with other study sites in Southern Brazil. We found 104 taxa belonging to 33 families, with Asteraceae (22 spp.) and Apocynaceae (14 spp.) being the richest families. Among climbing mechanisms, stem twiner (50 spp.) is the most common, followed by tendril (20 spp.) and scrambler (12 spp.), while in relation to the dispersal syndromes, anemochoric species (65 spp.) are the most relevant followed by endozoochoric (28 spp.). Three new species registries were found for Rio Grande do Sul State expanding their occurrence range towards South Brazil. The comparison of climbers' survey sites showed two sharp groups in relation to species composition and traits proportion, Seasonal and Araucaria/Atlantic forest sites, but with no difference of traits frequency between sites. There is a predominance of stem twiners species in all sites, but the relative difference for tendril species increases in Araucaria and Atlantic forest sites. The Asteraceae and Apocynaceae families were the most relevant, contrasting to Seasonal forests of Southeast Brazil. Interesting patterns can be achieved with a more detailed classification of climbing mechanisms and the results found in this study contributes to enhance the knowledge on climbers' traits and diversity in South Brazil.

Trepadeiras são importantes componentes florestais, contribuindo na diversidade e dinâmica de comunidades vegetais. Estudos focados em trepadeiras são escassos e para muitos tipos vegetacionais pouco se sabe sobre a composição de espécies de trepadeiras e seus atributos relevantes para dispersão e estabelecimento. O foco deste estudo é fornecer o primeiro inventário florístico de plantas trepadeiras em uma floresta de Araucária no Brasil, descrevendo as síndromes de dispersão e mecanismos de escalada das espécies e comparando esses atributos e a composição de espécies com outros sítios no Sul do Brasil. Foram encontrados 104 taxa pertencentes a 33 famílias, sendo Asteraceae (22 spp.) e Apocynaceae (14 spp.) as famílias mais ricas. Dentre os mecanismos de escalada, o tipo volúvel (50 spp.) é o mais comum, seguido por gavinhas (20 spp.) e apoiantes (12 spp.), enquanto em relação ès síndromes de dispersão as espécies anemocóricas (65 spp.) são as mais relevantes seguidas por endozoocóricas (28 spp.). Três novos registros de espécies foram encontrados para o Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, expandindo suas extensões de ocorrência para o Sul do Brasil. A comparação entre sítios evidenciou dois grupos nítidos em relação è composição de espécies e proporção de atributos, sítios em florestas sazonais e nas florestas com Araucária e Atlântica, porém não há diferença na frequência dos atributos entre os sítios. Há uma predominância de espécies volúveis em todos os sítios, entretanto a diferença relativa para espécies com gavinhas aumenta nos sítios de floresta com Araucária e Atlântica. As famílias Asteraceae e Apocynaceae foram as mais relevantes, contrastando com florestas sazonais no Sudeste do Brasil. Padrões interessantes podem ser encontrados com uma classificação mais detalhada dos mecanismos de escalada e os resultados encontrados neste estudo contribuem para aumentar o conhecimento sobre os atributos e a diversidade de trepadeiras no Sul do Brasil.

Dispersal spectrum of four forest types along an altitudinal range of the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest / Espectro de dispersão de quatro formações florestais ao longo de um gradiente altitudinal da Mata Atlântica brasileira

In ecological communities, the proportion of plant species with different dispersal syndromes is known as the dispersal spectrum, which can result from different selective pressures such as climate. This is because variations in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure and precipitation result in distinct flora and fauna among different sites. If climate conditions along an altitudinal range act as a strong direct or indirect selective pressure on dispersal syndromes, the dispersal spectrum among plant communities in different altitudes should be distinct. We organized the dispersal syndromes in five hierarchical levels according to the levels of detail in diaspore morphology and, consequently, different degrees of specificity to the dispersers. Then we identified, within each hierarchical level, the syndromes of tree species of four forest types of the Atlantic Rainforest along a 1200 m altitudinal range in Southeast Brazil. Among 327 species, we found two syndromes in the most general hierarchical level (abiotic and biotic dispersal), three in the following level (wind, self and animal), three in the intermediate level (barochory, autochory and endozoochory), two in the forth level (mammal and bird), and 12 syndromes in the most specific level, all of which were related to the morphology of diaspores dispersed by wind, autochory, mammals and birds. The dispersal spectrum in the five hierarchical levels was similar among the four forest types. Overall, the majority of species is dispersed by biotic agents, considered here as animals and the parent plant itself. Within biotic agents, the most important are animals, specifically birds. Most bird-dispersed species present drupoid diaspores. Our results indicate that the selective pressures on dispersal syndromes originated from climate conditions that vary with altitude are not strong, hence resulting in the same dispersal spectrum among the forest types.

Dentro de uma comunidade, a proporção de espécies vegetais com diferentes síndromes de dispersão é chamada de espectro de dispersão, o qual pode resultar de distintas pressões seletivas, como o clima. Isso ocorre porque variações na temperatura, umidade, pressão atmosférica e precipitação resultam em flora e fauna distintas entre locais. Assim, podemos esperar que o espectro de dispersão de comunidades vegetais em diferentes altitudes seja distinto se as condições climáticas ao longo do gradiente altitudinal atuarem como pressão seletiva direta ou indireta sobre as síndromes. Nós hierarquizamos as síndromes de dispersão em cinco níveis, de acordo com o detalhamento da morfologia dos diásporos e, consequentemente, seus diferentes graus de especificidade com os dispersores. Identificamos, em cada um dos níveis hierárquicos, as síndromes de espécies arbóreas de quatro formações florestais da Mata Atlântica ao longo de um gradiente altitudinal de 1200 m no sudeste do Brasil. Entre 327 espécies, encontramos duas síndromes no nível hierárquico mais geral (dispersão abiótica e biótica), três no nível seguinte (vento, própria planta parental e animais), três no nível intermediário (barocoria, autocoria e endozoocoria), duas no quarto nível (mamíferos e aves) e 12 síndromes no nível mais específico, relacionadas è morfologia dos diásporos dispersos pelo vento, autocoria, mamíferos e aves. O espectro de dispersão nos cinco níveis foi similar nas quatro formações florestais. De forma geral, a maior parte das espécies é dispersa por agentes bióticos, aqui considerados animais e a própria planta parental. Dentre os agentes bióticos, os mais importantes são os animais, especificamente as aves. A maioria das espécies dispersas pelas aves apresenta diásporos drupóides. Nossos resultados indicam que as pressões seletivas sobre as síndromes de dispersão ocasionadas pelas condições climáticas que variam com a altitude não são fortes. Assim, a ausência destas pressões seletivas resulta em um espectro de dispersão similar entre as formações florestais em diferentes altitudes.

Canopy phenology of a dry forest in western Brazil

Dry forests are common, although highly threatened in the Neotropics. Their ecological processes are mostly influenced by rainfall pattern, hence their cycles exhibit contrasting phases. We studied the phenology of canopy trees in a primary dry forest in Western Brazil in the foothills of the Urucum mountain chain, in order to improve our knowledge on the functioning of these poorly-known forests. Leaf shedding started in the early dry season and was massive in the latter part of this period. Most leaf loss occurred in dry hills, while wet valleys remained evergreen. Anemochorich and autochorich species predominated in dry hills, presumably due to their tolerance to dry conditions and enhanced exposition to winds, which favour diaspores removal and dispersal. Conversely, zoochorich species dominated the wet valleys. Flowering was intense in the late dry season, the driest period of the year, while fruiting was massive just after the onset of rains, as well as flushing. Therefore, most flowering was unrelated to wet conditions, although such an abiotic factor, potentially, triggered the major fruiting episode, widely comprised by zoochorich species. Anemochorich and autochorich species flowered and fruited in the course of the long dry season. The contrasting environmental conditions present in the hills and valleys determine the arrangement of a mosaic in which patches of zoochorich and evergreen trees alternate with patches of non zoochorich and highly deciduous species. Consequently, species with such syndromes exhibited marked flowering and fruiting patterns, accordingly to the pronounced seasonality.

Matas secas neotropicais estão amplamente distribuídas, porém sob elevado risco de desmatamento. Os processos ecológicos nesses ambientes são fortemente influenciados pelo clima, sobretudo o padrão de chuvas, de tal forma que seus ciclos apresentam fases muito contrastantes. Nesse estudo, avaliamos a produção de folhas, flores e frutos em uma mata seca do oeste brasileiro situada no sopé do maciço do Urucum. A perda de folhas teve início no começo da estação seca, mas foi massiva ao final desse período, o mais seco do ano. Espécies decíduas predominaram nas escarpas secas, enquanto as perenifólias foram comuns nos vales úmidos. Nas escarpas, espécies anemo e autocóricas eram muito comuns, potencialmente, por serem mais tolerantes à baixa umidade, bem como favorecidas por ventos mais fortes. Porém, eram raras ou mesmo ausentes nos vales úmidos dominados por espécies zoocóricas. A floração foi intensa, exibindo um pico acentuado ao final da estação seca, seguida de um pronunciado pico de frutificação e produção de folhas com o início das chuvas. Dessa forma, enquanto a floração massiva não foi influenciada pelas chuvas, a frutificação e produção de novas folhas estiveram fortemente relacionadas a esse fator abiótico. As espécies anemo e autocóricas floresceram e frutificaram durante a prolongada estação seca, ao contrário da maioria das zoocóricas. As condições ambientais contrastantes dos vales e escarpas, potencialmente determinam um mosaico em que porções altamente decíduas de mata, com predomínio de espécies anemo e autocóricas, se alternam com outras sempre verdes, dominadas por espécies zoocóricas. Além disso, a forte sazonalidade influencia diferentemente espécies com síndromes de dispersão distintas.

Canopy phenology of a dry forest in western Brazil

Dry forests are common, although highly threatened in the Neotropics. Their ecological processes are mostly influenced by rainfall pattern, hence their cycles exhibit contrasting phases. We studied the phenology of canopy trees in a primary dry forest in Western Brazil in the foothills of the Urucum mountain chain, in order to improve our knowledge on the functioning of these poorly-known forests. Leaf shedding started in the early dry season and was massive in the latter part of this period. Most leaf loss occurred in dry hills, while wet valleys remained evergreen. Anemochorich and autochorich species predominated in dry hills, presumably due to their tolerance to dry conditions and enhanced exposition to winds, which favour diaspores removal and dispersal. Conversely, zoochorich species dominated the wet valleys. Flowering was intense in the late dry season, the driest period of the year, while fruiting was massive just after the onset of rains, as well as flushing. Therefore, most flowering was unrelated to wet conditions, although such an abiotic factor, potentially, triggered the major fruiting episode, widely comprised by zoochorich species. Anemochorich and autochorich species flowered and fruited in the course of the long dry season. The contrasting environmental conditions present in the hills and valleys determine the arrangement of a mosaic in which patches of zoochorich and evergreen trees alternate with patches of non zoochorich and highly deciduous species. Consequently, species with such syndromes exhibited marked flowering and fruiting patterns, accordingly to the pronounced seasonality.

Matas secas neotropicais estão amplamente distribuídas, porém sob elevado risco de desmatamento. Os processos ecológicos nesses ambientes são fortemente influenciados pelo clima, sobretudo o padrão de chuvas, de tal forma que seus ciclos apresentam fases muito contrastantes. Nesse estudo, avaliamos a produção de folhas, flores e frutos em uma mata seca do oeste brasileiro situada no sopé do maciço do Urucum. A perda de folhas teve início no começo da estação seca, mas foi massiva ao final desse período, o mais seco do ano. Espécies decíduas predominaram nas escarpas secas, enquanto as perenifólias foram comuns nos vales úmidos. Nas escarpas, espécies anemo e autocóricas eram muito comuns, potencialmente, por serem mais tolerantes à baixa umidade, bem como favorecidas por ventos mais fortes. Porém, eram raras ou mesmo ausentes nos vales úmidos dominados por espécies zoocóricas. A floração foi intensa, exibindo um pico acentuado ao final da estação seca, seguida de um pronunciado pico de frutificação e produção de folhas com o início das chuvas. Dessa forma, enquanto a floração massiva não foi influenciada pelas chuvas, a frutificação e produção de novas folhas estiveram fortemente relacionadas a esse fator abiótico. As espécies anemo e autocóricas floresceram e frutificaram durante a prolongada estação seca, ao contrário da maioria das zoocóricas. As condições ambientais contrastantes dos vales e escarpas, potencialmente determinam um mosaico em que porções altamente decíduas de mata, com predomínio de espécies anemo e autocóricas, se alternam com outras sempre verdes, dominadas por espécies zoocóricas. Além disso, a forte sazonalidade influencia diferentemente espécies com síndromes de dispersão distintas.